Coffee 


ITS  HISTORY  CLASSinCAnON  AND  DESCRIPnm 


Joseph  M.  Walsh 


University  of  California  •  Berkeley 

JOSEPH  M.  BRANSTEN 
COFFEE  &  TEA  COLLECTION 

Acquired  in  memory  of 

Joseph  M.  Bransten 


N6DIRLANMWE 

HANDEL-MAAT8CHAPFU. 
BiBLIOTHEEK. 


Coffee  Tree  and  Berries. 


COFFEE 


its- 


History, 
Classmcation  and  Description 


BY 


JOSEPH  M.  WALSH, 

AUTHOR  OF 
TEAi  ITS  HISTORY  AND  MYSTERY. 


THE  JOHN  C.  WINSTON  CO., 

PHILADELPHIA, 
CHICAGO,  TOBONTa 


COPYRIGHTED,  1894, 

BY 

JOSEPH   M.  WALSH, 

All  Rights  Reserved. 


OH^r^TEH  I, 


i^arTmIT  xxisxoRir. 

'HE  gigantic  extent  to  which  the  production  and 
consumption  of  Coffee  has  been  carried  of  late 
years,  the  vast  number  of  hands  employed  in  its 

cultivation  and  preparation  for  market,  including 
the  great  quantity  of  shipping  necessary  for  its  transpor- 
tation, and  the  enormous  amount  of  capital  invested  in  its 
production  and  trade,  naturally  invest  the  commodity, 
not  only  from  a  commercial  but  also  from  a  moral  and 
social  standpoint,  with  great  importance,  creating  as  it 
does  an  industry  of  almost  fabulous  proportions  and 
capital,  rendering  it  second  to  no  other  article  of  food  or 
drink  in  the  world.  The  early  history  of  Coffee,  how- 
ever, like  that  of  Tea,  is  involved  in  considerable  ob- 
scurity, the  almost  total  absence  of  any  historical  fact 
being  only  compensated  for  by  an  unusual  profusion  of 
legendary  and  conjectural  statements,  or  by  purely  mythi- 
cal stories.  As  far  as  can  be  ascertained,  it  was  not 
known  to  the  ancients,  although  one  writer  claims  that 
it  is  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  making  the  bold  assertion 
that  the  potion  offered  to  King  David  on  a  certain  occa- 
sion, at  the  hands  of  the  fair  Abigail,  to  calm  the  temper 
of  the  excited  monarch,  must  have  been  Coffee,  basing 
his  argument  on  the  untenable  grounds  that  the  beverage, 
whatever  it  may  have  been,  was  prepared  from  something 
roasted.  Yet  no  mention  of  the  plant  or  its  product  is  to  be 
lound  among  the  Egyptians  in  the  time  of  the  Pharaohs, 

1 


EARLY   HISTORY. 


although  their  trade  at  their  period,  as  in  the  present,  lay- 
up  the  valley  of  the  Nile  toward  Berber,  its  reputed 
birthplace.  It  was  unknown  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans 
in  any  form,  and  though  claimed  to  have  been  in  use 
among  the  Arabs  at  a  very  remote  time,  no  reference  is 
made  to  it  by  Mohamet  or  his  followers  up  to  the  seventh 
century.  No  account  of  its  use  is  to  be  found  during  the 
first  Moslem  invasion  of  southern  Europe  by  Abdulrahman 
in  the  ninth  century,  although  large  quantities  of  the 
commodity  were  captured  in  their  camp  before  Vienna 
during  their  second  invasion  of  jsastern  Europe  in  the 
seventeenth  century,  and  it  is  not  even  alluded  to  by 
any  of  the  writers  who  accompanied  the  Crusaders  into 
Syria  during  the  thirteenth  century. 

To  the  Ethiopians  its  use  is  said  to  have  been  known 
from  time  immemorial,  and  that  the  plant  and  its  virtues 
were  first  discovered  in  that  country  is  now  generally 
admitted  by  all  authorities  on  the  subject.  The  first 
human  beings  who  appear  to  have  used  the  Coffee-berry 
in  any  form  being  the  semi-savage  tribes  inhabiting 
higher  Ethiopia,  to  which  country  the  Coffee-plant  is 
indigenous,  and  where  it  is  to  be  found  at  the  present  time, 
growing  abundantly  both  in  a  wild  and  cultivated  state. 
Bruce,  in  his  Travels  to  Discover  the  Source  of  the  Nile, 
pubhshed  in  1678,  informs  us  that  "The  Gallae  is  a 
wandering  nation  of  Africa,  who,  in  their  incursions  into 
Abyssinia,  are  obliged  to  traverse  immense  deserts,  and 
being  desirous  of  falling  on  the  towns  and  villages  of 
that  country  without  warning,  carry  nothing  to  eat  with 
them  but  the  berries  of  the  Coffee  tree  roasted  and 
pulverized,  which  they  mix  with  grease  to  a  certain  con- 
sistency that  will  permit  of  its  being  rolled  into  masses 
about  the  size  of  billiard  balls  and  then  put  in  leathern 
bags  until  required  for  use.     One  of  these  balls  they 


EARLY   HISTORY. 


claim  will  support  them  for  a  whole  day,  when  on  a 
marauding  incursion  or  in  active  war,  better  than  a  loaf 
of  bread  or  a  meal  of  meat,  because  it  cheers  their  spirits 
as  well  as  feeds  them." 

From  Ethiopia,  the  Coffee-plant  is  claimed  to  have 
been  introduced  into  Abyssinia  as  early  as  A.  d,  875, 
while,  according  to  Lagrenie,  Coffee  has  been  known  and 
used  in  Abyssinia,  from  the  very  earliest  times,  quoting 
the  Abbe  Raynal,  a  missionary  to  that  country  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  sixteenth  century,  to  that  effect,  stating  that 
"  he  procured  some  of  the  berries  from  cultivated  plants, 
and  made  a  trial  of  them,  finding  them  larger,  rather  longer 
and  quite  as  fragrant  as  those  obtained  from  Arabia.'' 
From  Abyssinia  it  was  evidently  first  introduced  into 
Arabia,  but  at  what  period  of  the  world's  history,  or 
under  what  circumstances  is  also  lost  in  doubt.  Tradi- 
tion— never  at  a  loss  for  some  marvelous  story — ascribes 
its  first  discovery  in  the  latter  country  to  a  Dervish,  who 
in  the  year  1275  was  driven  out  of  Moka,  pursued  and 
surrounded  by  his  enemies  in  the  adjacent  mountains. 
In  the  extremity  of  hunger  he  is  said  to  have  gathered 
some  Coffee-berries  and  eaten  them,  then,  steeping  some 
of  the  parched  berries  in  some  water  to  allay  his  thirst, 
he  accidentally  discovered  their  agreeable  flavor  and 
nutritious  properties.  While  another  Arabian  legend 
attributes  its  first  discovery  as  an  alimentary  infusion 
in  that  country  to  a  Mollah  named  Chadeley,  who  on 
being  informed  by  a  goat-herd  of  the  peculiar  and 
exciting  effect  produced  on  his  goats,  whenever  they 
happened  to  browse  on  the  leaves  and  fruit  of  a  certain 
kind  of  tree,  resolved  to  test  their  virtues  on  his  monks, 
with  whom  it  is  related  he  had  considerable  difficulty  in 
keeping  awake  during  their  nocturnal  devotions.  Pre- 
paring an  infusion  from  the  berries  of  the  plant  indicated. 


EARLY   HISTORY. 


he  served  it  to  them,  the  experiment  proving  a  complete 
success;  the  dervishes  taking  eagerly  thereafter  to  the 
new  and  exciting  beverage.  While,  according  to  an 
Arabian  manuscript,  now  to  be  found  in  the  Bibliotheque 
Nationale  of  Paris,  the  use  of  Coffee  was  known  in 
Arabia  as  early  as  the  thirteenth  century.  This  coffee- 
colored  document  states  that  "  a  certain  Mufti  of  Aden, 
on  his  return  from  a  journey  to  Persia,  about  the  middle 
of  the  fifteenth  century,  brought  back  with  him  some 
roasted  beans  of  Coffee."  While  in  an  old  treatise  upon 
Coffee,  published  in  1566  by  an  Arabian  sheikh,  it  is 
stated  that  the  first  knowledge  of  Coffee  and  its  use  was 
brought  from  Abyssinia  to  Arabia  about  the  beginning 
of  the  fifteenth  century  by  a  learned  and  pious  mollah 
named  Djmaleddin  Abou  Elfager.  According  to  this 
document,  the  use  of  Coffee  as  a  beverage  was  prevalent 
among  the  Abyssinians  from  the  most  remote  times,  and 
that  in  Arabia,  when  first  introduced,  it  only  supplanted  a 
preparation  made  from  the  leaves  of  the  Celastrus  in  that 
country.  The  introduction  and  use  of  the  beverage  by  the 
Mufti  gave  reputation  to  the  practice,  his  example  soon 
rendering  the  new  luxury  popular  among  his  countrymen^ 
**  first  among  lawyers  and  professional  men,  then  with 
students  and  those  who  learned  reading,  the  custom 
eventually  spreading  to  artisans  and  others  who  worked  in 
the  night,  and  finally  by  travelers,  who  journeyed  in  the 
night  to  avoid  the  heat  of  the  day."  In  a  short  time  it 
was  declared  in  Aden  "  that  this  liquor  purified  the  blood, 
by  a  gentle  agitation,  dissipated  the  ill  condition  of  the 
stomach  and  aroused  the  spirits."  As  a  result  of  this  high 
extolation  it  was  quickly  adopted  by  those  who  had 
no  occasion  to  keep  awake  at  night,  and  in  a  brief 
space  of  time,  says  M.  Galland,  "  the  whole  inhabitants 
of  Aden  became  inveterate  coffee-drinkers."    Its  pecuhar 


EARLY   HISTORY.  5 


property  of  dissipating  drowsiness  and  preventing  sleep 
was  taken  advantage  of  in  connection  with  the  prolonged 
religious  services  of  the  Mahometans,  and  its  use  as  a 
devotional  anti-soporific  stirred  up  a  fierce  opposition  on 
the  part  of  the  strictly  orthodox  and  conservative  section 
of  the  priesthood.  Coffee  being  held  by  them  to  be  an 
intoxicant  beverage,  and  therefore  prohibited  by  the 
Koran,  and  the  dreadful  penalties  of  an  outraged  sacred 
law  were  held  over  the  heads  of  all  who  became  addicted 
to  its  use  in  any  form.  But  notwithstanding  the  threats 
of  divine  retribution,  and  though  all  manner  of  devices 
were  adopted  in  order  to  check  its  growth,  the  coffee- 
drinking  habit  spread  rapidly  among  the  Arabian  Mahom- 
etans, and  the  growth  of  coffee,  as  well  as  its  use  as  a 
national  beverage,  became  as  inseparably  associated  with 
Arabia  as  tea  has  with  China. 

From  Aden,  the  use  of  coffee  extended  to  Mecca, 
Medina  and  other  cities  and  towns  of  Arabia,  the 
knowledge  and  taste  for  it  rapidly  spreading  outwards 
from  that  country  to  Syria  and  Persia.  Public  coffee- 
houses being  everywhere  established,  also  in  many  of  the 
other  countries  in  western  Asia,  affording,  according  to 
one  authority,  "  a  lounge  for  the  idle  and  a  relaxation  for 
the  man  of  business,  where  the  politician  retailed  the  news 
of  the  state ;  the  poet  recited  his  verses,  and  the  Mollahs 
delivered  their  sermons  to  the  frequenters."  But  the 
mania  for  coffee  becoming  so  great  about  this  period, 
particularly  in  Syria,  that  an  effort  was  made  by  author- 
ity of  the  government  to  check,  if  not  to  entirely  sup- 
press, the  further  growth  of  its  consumption  among  the 
inhabitants,  on  the  alleged  ground  of  "  its  intoxicating 
properties,"  but  in  reality  because  of  its  use  leading  to 
social  and  festive  gatherings,  incompatible  with  the 
strictness   and    teaching    of   the    Mahometan    religion. 


EARLY   HISTORY. 


From  Syria  the  use  of  the  "  benign  potation,"  as  it  was 
then  termed,  reached  Cairo  about  15  lo,  being  received 
with  equal  avidity  in  that- city,  so  much  so  that  in  that 
year  its  indiscriminate  use  was  prohibited  on  religious 
grounds,  also  by  Khaine  Beg,  the  then  governor  of  the 
city.  In  his  proclamation  forbidding  the  use  of  coffee, 
it  was  assailed  by  him  as  "  having  an  inebriating  effect, 
and  of  producing  inclinations  condemned  by  the  Koran." 
This  edict  was,  however,  rescinded  by  his  successor, 
Causin,  soon  after  his  assuming  the  governorship.  But 
another  effort  was  made  to  suppress  its  use  in  1523  by 
the  chief  priest,  Abdallah  Ibrahim,  who  denounced  its 
use  in  a  sermon  dehvered  in  the  mosque  of  Haffanaine, 
a  violent  commotion  being  produced  among  the  populace, 
the  opposing  factions  coming  to  blows  over  its  use.  The 
governor,  Sheikh  Obelek,  a  man  wise  in  his  generation 
and  time,  then  assembled  the  moUahs,  doctors  and  others 
of  the  opponents  of  coffee-drinking  at  his  residence,  and 
after  listening  patiently  to  their  tedious  harangues  against 
its  use,  treated  them  all  to  a  cup  of  coffee  each,  first 
setting  the  example  by  drinking  one  himself  Then  dis- 
missing them,  courteously  withdrew  from  their  presence 
without  uttering  a  single  word.  By  this  prudent  conduct 
the  public  peace  was  soon  restored,  and  coffee  was  ever 
afterward  allowed  to  be  used  in  Cairo. 

Coffee  continued  its  progress  without  further  molesta- 
tion through  Egypt,  the  beverage  being  received  in 
Damascus  in  1530,  and  in  Aleppo  a  few  years  later,  with- 
out opposition,  becoming  known  to  the  inhabitants  of 
Constantinople  for  the  first  time  in  1554,  in  which  year 
two  persons,  named  Schems  and  Heken,  the  former 
coming  from  Damascus,  and  the  latter  from  Aleppo, 
opened  the  first  coffee-houses  in  that  city,  where  it 
soon  became  the  favorite  drink  with  all  classes,  "the 


EARLY   HISTORY. 


coffee-houses  being  thronged  night  and  day,  the  poorer 
classes  actually  begging  money  in  the  streets  for  the  sole 
object  of  purchasing  coffee."  And  in  Constantinople,  at 
this  time,  we  are  informed  that  ''  a  refusal  to  supply  a 
wife  with  a  specified  quantity  of  coffee  per  diem  was 
admitted  to  be  a  vahd  cause  for  divorce."  But  in  Con- 
stantinople, as  in  Cairo,  the  new  habit  excited  considerable 
commotion  among  the  ecclesiastical  authorities  and 
political  rulers,  owing  to  the  popularity  of  the  coffee- 
houses having  a  depressing  influence  on  the  attendance 
at  the  mosques,  on  which  account  a  fierce  hostility  was 
excited  among  the  religious  orders  against  the  new 
beverage.  They  laid  their  grievances  before  the  Sultan, 
who  first  prohibited  and  then  laid  a  heavy  tax  upon  the 
coffee-houses,  notwithstanding  which  they  continued  to 
flourish  and  extend.  A  similar  persecution  to  that  in 
Syria  and  Cairo  soon  attended  its  use  in  the  Turkish 
capital,  having  not  only  to  contend  there  with  religious 
but  also  with  political  opposition,  the  religious,  as  usual, 
predominating  in  its  severity.  The  dervishes  had  the 
sagacity  to  discover  "  that  coffee  when  roasted  became 
a  kind  of  coal,  and  coal  being  one  of  the  substances 
which  their  prophet  had  declared  was  not  intended 
by  Allah  for  human  food,"  they  therefore  declaimed 
against  it  with  unbounded  fury.  The  mufti  being  of 
their  party,  the  coffee-houses  were  at  once  closed  by 
a  firman  of  the  Sultan,  Amuret  III.  This  prohibition 
was,  however,  found  impossible  to  maintain,  as  a  few 
years  later  a  more  liberal  governor  succeeding,  he 
assured  the  faithful  "  that  roasted  Coffee  was  not  coal, 
and  had  no  relation  to  it"  The  coffee-houses  were 
immediately  reopened,  and  soon  became  as  much  patron- 
ized as  before.  But  though  religious  superstition  thus 
readily  gave  way  to  the  seductive  influences  of  sensitive 


INTRODUCTION   INTO    EUROPE. 


enjoyment,  a  submission  not  at  all  uncommon,  the 
political  objections  were  not  so  easily  silenced.  The 
government,  first  with  that  instinctive  faculty  so  natural 
to  all  despotic  rulers  of  converting  to  their  own  ad- 
vantage the  tastes  and  prejudices  of  their  subjects,  laid 
a  heavy  tax  on  the  sale  and  consumption  of  coffee, 
from  which  it  derived  an  enormous  revenue.  But  the 
ever-trembling  apprehensions  of  such  forms  of  govern- 
ment, not  satisfied  with  this  restriction,  found,  or  rather 
fancied  it  found,  in  the  coffee-houses  resorts  for  the 
disaffected  and  nurseries  of  sedition.  These  "  dangerous 
places  "  were  consequently  regarded  with  a  jealous  eye, 
and  again  proclaimed  against  by  the  edict  of  the  Sultan. 
But  not  being  deemed  formidable  beyond  the  precincts 
of  the  city,  and  also  being  of  too  much  importance  to 
the  public  revenue,  they  were  suffered  to  remain  open  in 
all  other  parts  of  the  empire.  Scruples  of  conscience 
and  political  objections,  however,  eventually  died  out, 
religious  superstition  and  political  opposition  being  no 
longer  excited  against  the  use  of  coffee  as  a  beverage, 
so  far  as  the  Turkish  empire  was  concerned. 


INTROOXJCTIOIV    INTO    ETJUOPE, 

It  is  likewise  very  difficult  to  determine  in  what  year 
and  in  what  exact  manner  coffee  was  first  carried  from 
Constantinople  to  western  Europe,  but  it  is  generally 
admitted  that  the  Venetians,  on  account  of  the  proximity 
of  their  dominions  and  extensive  trade  with  the  Levant, 
were  the  first  Europeans  to  become  acquainted  with  it. 
And  it  is  a  noteworthy  fact  that  the  three  principal  dietical 
beverages  of  the  world  were  introduced  into  Europe 
within  a  few  years  of  each  other,  Cocoa  being  the  first 
of  the  three  which  actually  appeared  there,  having  been 


INTRODUCTION    INTO    EUROPE. 


brought  to  Spain  from  South  America.  Coffee  followed, 
coming  from  Arabia,  and  Tea,  the  latest  of  the  series, 
coming  from  China  by  the  hands  of  the  Portuguese. 

The  first  authentic  mention  made  of  Coffee  or  its 
use  by  a  European  is  probably  that  of  Rauwolf,  a  Ger- 
man physician  and  traveler,  upon  his  return  from  an 
extended  tour  through  Syria,  in  1573.  The  first  scien- 
tific account  of  the  plant  being  that  given  by  Alpinus, 
an  Italian  naturalist,  in  his  Medicina  Egyptorium,  pub- 
lished in  Venice  in  1591.  Its  use  as  a  beverage  is  first 
referred  to  by  two  English  travelers  —  Biddulph  and 
Finch — the  former,  in  writing  of  it  in  1603,  stating  "  that 
the  Turks  have  for  their  most  common  drink  Coffee — 
a  blackish  drink  made  from  a  kind  of  pulse-like 
pease,  and  called  by  them  Coava!'  In  1607  Finch 
relates  that  "  the  people  of  the  island  Socotra  have  for 
their  best  entertainment  a  China  dish  called  Cobo^  a  black, 
bitterish  drink,  made  of  a  berry  very  like  a  bay-berry, 
brought  from  Moka,  and  supped  off  hot."  While  Pietro 
Valla,  a  Venetian,  in  a  letter  written  from  Constantinople, 
in  161 5,  states  that  upon  his  return  to  Venice  "he  would 
bring  back  with  him  some  coffee  which  he  believed  was 
a  thing  heretofore  unknown  in  his  country,"  and  which 
he  subsequently  did.  It  is  also  referred  to,  in  162 1,  by 
Burton  in  his  "  Anatomy  of  Melancholy "  as  follows  : 
"  The  Turks  have  a  drink  called  Coffee,  so  named  from  a 
berry,  black  as  soot  and  as  bitter,  which  they  sip  up  hot, 
because  they  find  by  experience  that  that  kind  of  drink, 
so  used,  helpeth  digestion  and  promoteth  alacrity."  And 
coffee  in  a  liquid  state  is  said  to  have  been  sold  in  Rome 
as  early  as  1625.  Some  of  the  prepared  beans  of  Coffee 
were  first  carried  from  Turkey  to  France  by  De  la  Haye, 
as  early  as  1644  ;  "not  only  coffee,  but  also  the  proper 
apparatus  for  preparing  it."     In  1657  a  small  quantity 


lO  INTRODUCTION    INTO   EUROPE. 

was  brought  to  Paris  by  Thevenot,  its  use,  however, 
being  confined  solely  to  his  own  immediate  family  and  a 
few  friends.  Up  to  this  period,  however,  and  for  many 
years  after,  it  had  never  been  seen  and  scarcely  ever 
heard  of  by  the  public  at  large  in  that  country.  But  in 
1660  "several  bales  of  coffee"  were  shipped  from 
Alexandria  to  Marseillaise,  and  in  167 1  the  first  coffee- 
house was  opened  in  the  latter  city  near  the  Exchange, 
"  where  the  merchants  met  to  smoke,  talk  business  and 
divert  themselves  with  play."  But  it  was  not  until  the 
year  1669  that  Coffee  drinking  became  popular  in  France, 
though  infrequent  travelers  had  brought  with  them  from 
the  East  a  few  pounds  of  the  then  curious  berry.  In 
that  year  Solieman  Aga  was  sent  as  Ambassador  from 
Mahomet  IV.  to  the  court  of  Louis  XIV.,  where  he 
soon  became  a  "  Hon,"  through  the  splendid  and  unique 
entertainments  at  which  he  figured  as  host.  On  bended 
knees,  the  black  slaves  of  the  Ambassador,  arrayed  in 
the  most  gorgeous  Oriental  costumes,  presented  the 
choicest  Moka,  in  tiny  cups  of  egg-shell  porcelain,  hot, 
strong  and  fragrant,  poured  out  on  saucers  of  gold  and 
silver,  placed  on  embroidered  silk  napkins  fringed  with 
gold  bullion,  to  the  grand  dames  who  fluttered  their  fans 
with  many  grimaces,  and  bent  their  piquant  faces — 
berouged,  bepowdered  and  bepatched — over  the  new 
and  steaming  beverage.  Such  was  the  half-barbaric 
occasion  by  which  Coffee  first  became  generally  known 
to  that  nation,  which  is  now  so  largely  dependent  upon 
the  "brown  berry  of  Arabia."  The  Parisians  imme- 
diately became  quite  enthusiastic  over  it,  the  aristocracy 
adopting  it  as  the  fashionable  beverage,  it  being  recorded 
that  the  daughters  of  Louis  XIV.  had  Coffee  imported 
expressly  for  the  use  of  the  royal  household,  at  a  cost 
of  ;^  1 5,000  yearly. 


INTRODUCTION    INTO    EUROPE.  II 

The  first  Coffee-house  was  opened  in  Paris,  in  1672, 
by  an  Armenian,  at  the  fair  of  St.  Germaine.  Meeting 
with  considerable  success,  he  was  encouraged  to  open 
another  at  the  Quai  d'Ecole,  where  he  was  subsequently 
succeeded  by  another,  but  who,  owing  to  a  lack  of 
address  and  a  proper  place  to  serve  it  in,  was  soon  com- 
pelled to  relinquish  the  business.  About  1675  an  enter- 
prising Frenchman,  Ettienne  d'Alep,  fitted  up  spacious 
apartments  in  the  Rue  des  ItaHenes,  with  Oriental  mag- 
nificence for  the  purpose  of  catering  to  the  public  taste 
for  coffee.  This  Cafe — as  it  was  called — was  the  first  of 
these  now  famous  institutions,  was  furnished  in  the  most 
elegant  and  expensive  manner,  ornamented  with  rich 
tapestries,  mirrors,  pictures,  divans  and  costly  lustres, 
tea  and  chocolate  being  also  sold  in  it.  This  style  of 
coffee-house  multiplied  in  a  very  short  time  in  the  gay 
city,  and  were  regularly  frequented  by  people  of  fashion, 
artists,  men  of  letters  and  politicians,  the  Cafe  Procope 
in  particular  becoming  immortalized  from  its  being 
patronized  by  Voltaire,  Moliere,  Bolieau,  Fontaine  and 
other  Encyclopedists,  while  another,  the  Cafe  de  la 
Regence,  became  the  Mecca  of  chess  players.  In  a  brief 
period  these  coffee-houses  had  increased  to  nearly  three 
hundred  in  Paris  alone,  the  Cafes  eventually  becoming 
dangerous  rivals  to  the  Cabarets,-  finally  becoming  the 
cradle  of  the  modern  clubs,  it  being  in  one  of  these  coffee- 
houses— the  Cafe  Procope — that  Camille  DesmouHns 
was  wont  to  deliver  his  stirring  addresses.  But,  as  in  the 
East,  at  first,  coffee  here  again  met  with  considerable 
opposition.  Madame  Sevigne  presuming  "that  coffee 
and  other  poisons  would  soon  go  out  of  fashion." 

The  use  of  coffee  as  a  beverage  is  claimed  to  have 
been  known  in  England  prior  to  its  introduction  into 
France,  and  by  some  authorities  even  before  the  return 


12  INTRODUCTION    INTO    EUROPE. 

of  Thevenot  from  the  East.  One  account  states  that  it 
was  first  offered  for  sale  there  by  a  Jew  named  Jacobs 
at  Oxford,  as  early  as  1640.  And  according  to  the  jour- 
nal of  Thomas  Rugg,  dated  September  22,  165 1,  coffee 
was  then  sold  in  a  hquid  state  at  the  "  Sultaness  Head,  a 
Cophee  house  by  the  Royal  Exchange,  London,"  there 
being  also  distinct  evidence  extant  that  for  some  years 
prior  to  that  date  it  was  also  offered  for  sale  in  many  other 
parts  of  that  city.  The  first  authentic  account,  however, 
states  that  coffee  was  first  introduced  into  England  by  a 
Turkey  merchant  named  Daniel  Edwards,  who,  on  his 
return  from  a  trip  to  Smyrna,  brought  back  with  him  a 
quantity  of  it,  and  with  it  a  Greek  servant  from  Ragusa, 
named  Pasquale  Rossie,  who  understood  the  Eastern 
method  of  roasting  and  preparing  it.  Edwards  had  it 
prepared  and  served  every  day  to  his  friends  and  visitors 
in  true  Oriental  style,  but  finding  that  the  novelty  began 
to  attract  too  many  visitors,  his  house  being  thronged 
daily  by  those  anxious  to  taste  the  new  beverage,  he 
established  Rossie,  in  company  with  another  named 
Bowman,  in  a  tent  for  its  sale  in  St.  Michael's  Alley, 
Cornhill,  London,  over  which  Rossie  erected  a  sign  with 
his  own  portrait,  and  subsequently  announcing  himself 
to  be  "  the  first  person  who  made  and  publicly  sold 
Coffee  drink  in  England."  Bowman,  later,  opened  a 
coffee-house  on  his  own  account  on  Lombard  street,  his 
former  partner,  Rossie,  going  to  Holland,  where,  it  is 
said,  he  was  the  first  to  introduce  coffee  in  the  drink. 
At  this  time  coffee  sold  for  from  twenty  to  twenty-five 
dollars  per  pound,  but  soon  became  cheaper. 

In  1657  many  other  houses  were  opened  in  London  for 
the  sale  of  coffee,  an  excise  tax  of  eight  pence  per  gallon 
being  paid  on  it,  when  made  and  sold  in  the  infusion 
dX  that  time.     The  same  year  a  newspaper  advertisement 


INTRODUCTION    INTO    EUROPE.  1 3 

appeared,  stating  that  "  In  Bartholomew  Lane  on  the 
back  of  the  old  Exchange  the  drink  called  Cophee  is 
sold  in  the  morning  and  at  three  o'clock  in  the  after- 
noon." The  first  mention  of  coffee  on  the  statute  books 
was  in  1660,  when  a  duty  of  four  pence  was  laid  on 
every  gallon  of  coffee  made  and  sold,  to  be  paid  by  the 
maker  thereof,  another  particular  statute,  in  1663,  direct- 
ing that  "all  coffee-houses  should  be  licensed  at  the 
general  quarter  sessions  of  the  peace  for  the  county  in 
which  they  are  kept."  While  another  advertisement  in 
that  year  says  of  coffee :  "  It  much  quickens  the  spirits, 
and  makes  the  heart  lightsome,  suppresseth  the  fumes 
exceedingly,  and,  therefore,  is  good  against  headache, 
prevents  cough  and  consumption,  and  is  excellent  for 
the  cure  of  gout,  dropsy,  scurvey,  hypochondria  and  the 
like." 

In  London,  as  in  the  other  cities  where  Coffee  was 
first  introduced,  coffee-houses  multiplied  rapidly,  not 
only  in  the  capital,  but  in  all  the  larger  cities  of  Eng- 
land, there  being  in  1688,  according  to  Ray,  as  many 
coffee-houses  in  London  alone  as  in  grand  Cairo  itself, 
Coffee  becoming  a  beverage  of  general  consumption 
throughout  the  entire  countiy.  Long  antedating  news- 
papers, the  coffee-houses  became  news-centres,  where  the 
intelligent  men  of  the  times  gathered  to  learn  what  was 
occurring  in  the  literary  and  political  world,  to  discuss 
public  affairs,  governmental  measures,  and  form  public 
opinion.  Wits  and  poets,  essayists  and  philosophers, 
daily  gathered  in  the  coffee-houses  of  London,  during 
several  generations,  to  quote  from  favorite  authors.  How 
faithfully  they  harangued  and  button-holed  each  other 
in  that  fashion  so  common  to  all  ages,  and  within  their 
precincts,  what  fear  and  folly,  what  foolishness  and  wis- 
dom, have  been  uttered  over  steaming  cups  of  Mocha, 


14  INTRODUCTION  INTO  EUROPE. 

Many  of  these  London  coffee-houses  afterwards  be- 
came famous  as  the  resorts  of  celebrated  men.  It  was 
at "  Will's  Coffee-house,"  in  Covent  Garden,  that  Dryden 
and  Addison,  Steel  and  Davenant,  Gary  and  Pope, 
met  with  other  luminaries,  while  others  frequented  "  But- 
tons " ;  Garrick  sipping  his  Mocha  at  "  Paine's,"  in 
Buchnal  Lane.  It  being  at  the  famous  coffee-houses  of 
"  Garraway,"  "Coventrie,"  and  the  "  St.  James,"  that  the 
Whigs  of  that  time  "did  most  congregate,"  and  if  it  be 
proved  that  other  potations  more  fiery  and  deep  min- 
gled with  those  of  the  Arabian  product,  it  may  be  taken 
for  granted  that  Coffee  often  supplied  the  place  of  worse 
beverages,  or,  at  least,  mitigated  their  evil  effects,  the 
"  intellectual  drink "  gaining  friends  daily  among  the 
wits  of  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne.  It  was  in  a  London 
coffee-house  that  Pope  found  the  inspiration  of  "The 
Rape  of  the  Lock,"  if  not  the  "  Essay  on  Man,"'  also, 
an  inspiration,  which  he  celebrated  in  the  following 
lines : — 

* '  From  silver  spirits  the  grateful  liquors  glide, 
While  China' s  earth  receives  the  smoking  tide  ; 
At  once  they  gratify  their  sense  and  taste, 
And  frequent  cups  prolong  the  rich  repast ; 
Coffee  !  which  makes  the  politician  wise, 
And  see  through  all  things  with  half-closed  eyes." 

The  coffee-houses  of  London,  as  in  other  cities,  event- 
ually became  convenient  and  much  frequented  resorts 
of  association  and  acquaintance  where  politics,  literature 
and  business  topics  were  freely  discussed,  and  it  is  also 
remarkable  that  the  introduction  of  coffee  into  England 
encountered  the  same  hostility  that  it  was  fated  to  meet 
with  in  all  other  countries  where  it  was  first  introduced. 
Here  also  it  had  its  fanatical  opponents,  numerous 
pamphlets  being  published  in  favor  of  and  against  its  use. 


INTRODUCTION    INTO    EUROPE.  IS 

It  was  discussed  from  every  point  of  view^  medical, 
moral,  physical  and  political,  at  one  time  threatening  to 
become  a  causus  belli  between  the  sexes.  The  "  Women's 
petition  against  coffee  "  and  the  **  Men's  answer  "  to  the 
same  have  become  a  matter  of  history.  Among  the  men 
also  the  new  beverage  had  its  opponents,  as  in  1657  the 
"  Rainbow  Coffee-house  "  kept  by  James  Farr  in  Queen's 
Temple  was  reputed  and  persecuted  by  them  as  "  a  great 
nuisance,  and  a  prejudice  to  the  neighborhood,"  and  as  such 
was  suppressed,  but  reopened  in  a  short  time  afterwards. 
In  1675  Charles  II.  for  political  reasons  attempted  to  sup- 
press the  coffee-houses  by  a  royal  proclamation,  classing 
all  of  them  as  "Seminaries  of  sedition,"  and  in  which 
it  was  stated  that  "  they  were  the  resort  of  disaffected 
persons  who  devised  and  spread  abroad  divers  false, 
malicious  and  scandalous  reports  to  the  defamation  of 
His  Majesty's  Government,  the  disturbance  of  the  peace 
and  quiet  of  the  nation."  This  proclamation  caused  so 
much  excitement  throughout  the  city  that  it  had  to  be 
rescinded  in  a  few  days  on  a  petition  from  the  tea  and 
coffee  dealers.  On  the  opinion  of  legal  officials  being 
taken  as  to  the  legality  of  that  step,  an  oracular  deliver- 
ance was  given  to  the  effect  "  that  the  retailing  of  coffee 
might  be  an  innocent  trade,  but  as  it  was  used  to  nourish 
sedition,  spread  lies  and  scandalize  great  men,  it  might 
also  prove  a  common  nuisance."  Cromwell  ordered  them 
closed  again  during  the  Protectorate  for  somewhat 
similar  reasons,  but  having  become  necessary  to  the 
people  they  could  not  be  put  down  for  any  length  of 
time.  But  in  England  also,  as  in  the  other  countries, 
the  most  effective  check  on  the  increase  of  the  consump- 
tion of  coffee  was  found  to  be  a  heavy  tax,  which,  while 
restricting  honest  trade,  opened  up  a  channel  for  exten- 
sive smuggHng  operations. 


1 6  INTRODUCTION   INTO    EUROPE. 

The  London  coffee-houses,  however,  soon  assumed  the 
additional  character  of  Taverns  also,  other  liquors  being 
added  to  the  fare,  thereby  losing  their  attraction  for  the 
temperately  inclined,  the  Cafe  or  coffee-house  proper 
flourishing  only  for  any  length  of  time  in  Paris  alone. 
But  while  the  people  of  London  began  to  complain  that 
the  company  to  be  found  in  their  coffee-houses  was  some- 
what mixed,  those  of  the  Parisians  from  the  very  first 
continued  to  be  the  most  elegant  and  select  places  of 
resort  even  to  the  present  day.  Before  their  doors  the 
equipages  of  the  nobility  stopped,  while  ladies  of  the 
highest  rank  drank  their  coffee  without  alighting,  and  the 
Salons  within  were  crowded  with  nobles,  philosophers, 
poets,  artists  and  litterateurs. 

The  sale  of  Coffee  in  a  Hquid  form  is  claimed  to  have 
been  first  introduced  to  Holland  by  the  aforementioned 
Rossie  in  1664,  from  whence  its  use  soon  spread 
throughout  Germany  and  other  parts  of  the  continent 
of  Europe.  While  to  Vienna  the  Turks  themselves 
first  introduced  coffee  in  1683,  under  somewhat  singular 
circumstances.  In  that  year  the  Moslems  besieged  that 
city  with  an  enormous  force,  the  siege  being  raised, 
as  history  tells,  by  the  Polish  King,  John  Sobieski,  and 
the  Moslem  hordes  completely  routed.  Large  quantities 
of  coffee  were  found  in  their  deserted  camp,  and  pre- 
sented to  one  Kolschutski  as  a  reward  for  the  heroic 
services  he  had  rendered  during  the  investment  of  the 
city,  and  utilized  by  him  in  the  establishment  of  the  first 
Coffee-house  in  Vienna. 

Coffee-houses  have  been  known  in  the  United  States 
from  an  early  period  in  its  history,  but  for  a  long  time 
New  Orleans  was  the  only  city  where  they  existed  in 
their  true  character,  the  manner  being  learned  from  Paris. 
Among  the  American  people,  however,  the  beverage  has 


INTRODUCTION   INTO    EUROPE.  1 7 

met  from  the  first  with  great  favor,  being  at  the  present 
time  more  extensively  used  here  than  in  any  country 
of  the  world,  not  excepting  the  countries  of  original 
production. 

Thus  in  a  cours  t  of  a  few  centuries  has  a  berry,  until 
t'"en  entirely  unknown  as  an  article  of  diet,  except  to  the 
semi-savage  tribes  of  Ethiopia  and  Abyssinia,  made  its 
way  through  the  whole  civilized  world.  In  the  nations 
professing  the  religion  of  Mahomet  it  is  drunk  at  all 
hours  of  the  day,  and  during  the  night  by  all  ranks 
and  classes  of  the  people,  from  the  Sultan  and  the 
Mufti  to  the  merchant,  the  artisan  and  the  peasant. 
While  among  the  nations  professing  Christianity,  by 
whom  it  has  been  known  for  a  couple  of  centuries,  it  is 
still  regarded  as  a  luxury,  but  indulged  in,  more  or  less, 
by  all  classes  and  conditions  of  society.  In  none  of  the 
states  of  Christendom  was  its  use  ever  opposed  by  relig- 
ious fanaticism,  nor  had  it  to  encounter  much  opposition 
from  political  jealousy,  except  for  a  brief  period  in  Eng- 
land, when  its  use  was  interdicted  by  Charles  II.  But, 
like  every  other  innovation  which  has  occupied  the 
human  mind,  it  could  not  fail  to  occasion  a  difference  of 
opinion  among  medical  experts,  social  reformers  and 
similar  bodies.  Its  history,  at  the  present  time,  being 
only  valuable  as  an  example  of  a  commodity  for  which 
there  is  a  universal  craving  amongst  mankind  in  general, 
civilized  as  well  as  savage,  and  to  illustrate  how  it  has 
struggled  successfully,  and  at  length  triumphantly,  over 
religious  superstition,  political  opposition,  physiological 
prejudice,  fiscal  restrictions,  exorbitant  taxes,  differential 
duties  and  an  endless  accumulation  of  antiquated  obstruc- 
tions. Yet,  still,  in  common  with  other  important  neces- 
saries of  life,  it  has  never  attained  to  the  natural  state 
of  "  unrestricted  competition." 


OHiVI^'TKl^  II. 


OEjooieA.p*n:iOi\.i:^  rn^oc^i^iiBuarxopa 


^'^HE  Coffee  plant,  although  now  so  widely  and  ex- 
I  l*^  tensively  grown  and  cultivated  in  both  hemi- 
spheres, and  to  be  found  in  all  the  Botanic 
gardens  as  well  as  in  many  of  the  private  conservatories 
of  the  new  and  old  worlds,  was  entirely  unknown  outside 
of  Abyssinia  and  Arabia  up  to  the  close  of  the  seventeenth 
century.  Ray,  in  his  "  History  of  Plants,"  published  in 
1688,  expresses  his  surprise  "that  the  neighboring 
countries  of  Europe  should  permit  so  rare  a  treasure  to 
be  confined  to  a  single  province,  and  wonders  what 
watchful  dragon  is  employed  by  the  natives  to  prevent 
strangers  from  procuring  either  the  plant  or  its  seed, 
which  could  be  readily  grown  in  similar  climates  and 
soil ;"  adding,  "  It  cannot  be  imagined  how  the  enterpris- 
ing commercial  nations  of  Europe,  which  founded 
colonies  in  the  tropics  can  be  so  inattentive  to  the  value 
and  importance  of  such  an  acquisition."  Whether  act- 
ing on  this  suggestion  or  not,  the  plant  soon  afterwards 
was  introduced  and  extensively  cultivated  in  many  of 
the  countries  colonized  by  Europeans. 

Between  well-recognized  limits  north  and  south  of  the 
equator  Coffee  is  found  growing  and  bearing  highly 
profitable  crops  in  a  wide  range  of  countries  to  attempt 
anything  like  an  exhaustive  account  of  which,  is  impos- 
sible within  the  range  of  a  single  chapter.     Originally  a 


GEOGRAPHICAL   DISTRIBUTION. 


native  of  Southeastern  Africa  the  coffee  plant  has  been 
widely  distributed,  successfully  cultivated  and  prop- 
agated in  regions  and  countries  geographically  apart 
and  in  districts  widely  differing  in  climatic  and  topo- 
graphic conditions,  and  as  having  been  found  to  endure 
greater  extremes  of  climate,  variations  in  soil  and  situa- 
tion than  any  other  variety  of  plant  of  tropical  origin. 
Its  facility  of  propagation  and  production  under  such 
extreme  conditions  is  admitted  by  botanists  as  most 
remarkable  and  equalled  only  by  few  members  of  the 
vegetable  kingdom,  its  cultivation  at  the  present  time 
extending  over  the  entire  tropical  belt  of  the  globe. 

It  is  practically  indigenous  to  almost  the  whole  of 
Africa,  being  one  of  the  few  useful  economic  products 
that  the  African  flora  has  as  yet  given  to  the  world.  It 
is  to  be  found  growing  there  abundantly  in  a  wild  state, 
particularly  between  the  5th  and  15th  parallels,  and  in  a 
state  of  cultivation  on  the  west  coast  in  Liberia,  Loango 
and  northern  Angola,  as  well  as  in  many  of  the  districts 
lying  between  the  lower  Congo  and  the  latter  country, 
wherein  no  white  man  has  as  yet  penetrated,  its  planting 
and  gathering  being  carried  on  by  the  natives,  who  bring 
their  harvests  down  to  the  coast  at  Ambrig  and  neigh- 
boring settlements  to  sell  to  the  white  traders.  The 
Portuguese  colonists  of  Principe  and  Sao  Thorne,  cul- 
tivate coffee  extensively,  their  products  standing  in  high 
repute.  It  has  been  grown  with  success  in  the  Gaboon  by 
French  missionaries,  and  some  desultory  planting  is  also 
being  carried  on  in  Senegal,  St.  Helena,  Sierra  Leone  and 
the  Gambia  colonies.  It  grows  wild  in  the  Congo 
region,  the  districts  around  Glandypool  being  eminently 
adapted  to  its  cultivation,  but  is  as  yet  not  taken  advan- 
tage of  there,  the  natives  of  these  countries,  unlike  those 
further  south,  ignoring  the  properties  of  its  fruit. 


GEOGRAPHICAL   DISTRIBUTION.  21 

It  is  cultivated  in  Natal  and  on  the  Zambesi  river  as 
well  as  in  Usumbara,  opposite  to  Zanzibar,  which  pre- 
sents a  splendid  field  for  Coffee  planting,  containing  as  it 
does  admirable  soil,  cheap  labor,  easy  transport  and  land 
which  is  to  be  had  for  next  to  nothing,  the  missionaries 
distributing  the  Coffee  seed  among  the  inhabitants  to 
induce  them  to  cultivate  it  more  extensively.  While 
further  into  the  interior,  towards  Pare,  Nyanza  and  Killi- 
manjaro,  there  are  increasingly  fine  sites  and  suitable  soil 
for  successful  and  profitable  Coffee  planting  only  owned 
as  yet  by  the  birds  of  the  air  and  the  beasts  of  the  field.  It 
is  to  be  found  both  in  a  wild  state  as  well  as  in  a  state  of 
cultivation  in  Abyssinia  and  the  Nyassa  district,  being 
also  cultivated  for  commercial  purposes  further  north  in 
lower  Egypt,  Nubia,  Somali  and  the  Soudan,  as  well  as 
in  Mozambique,  and  the  islands  of  Madagascar,  Bourbon 
and  Mauritius.  But  the  total  yield  of  Africa  so  far  as 
its  influence  on  the  world's  supply  is  concerned  is  com- 
paratively insignificant,  the  export  capacity  of  the  latter 
countries  not  exceeding  800  tons  annually.  The  total 
product  of  the  eastern  provinces  of  Africa  taken  in  con- 
nection with  the  small  quantities  raised  on  the  west  coast 
making'  Africa  contribute  only  between  3,000  to  4,000 
tons  to  the  world's  production,  this  amount  including 
all  the  Coffee  grown  in  Egypt  and  the  interior  countries 
of  that  continent. 

From  Africa  the  coffee  plant  was  undoubtedly  carried 
to  Arabia,  but  at  what  period  of  the  world's  history  or 
under  what  circumstances  is  not  definitely  known.  It 
was  introduced  from  Arabia  to  Java  in  1690,  according 
to  Boerhave,  who  tells  us  that  "  Nicholas  Wilser,  Burgo- 
master of  Amsterdam  and  Governor  of  the  Dutch  East 
India  Company,  in  that  year  instructed  Van  Horn,  the 
then  Governor  of  Batavia,  to  procure  some  plants  or 


2  2  GEOGRAPHICAL   DISTRIBUTION. 

seeds  of  the  Coffee  tree  from  Arabia  and  endeavor  to 
cultivate  them  in  that  settlement."  Although  its  intro- 
duction into  Java  is  placed  later  by  Stavornius,  who 
claims  that  the  plant  was  first  carried  from  Mocha  to 
Batavia  as  late  as  1722  by  Zwardekiom,  the  governor  of 
the  colony  in  that  year,  other  authorities  claiming  that 
Zwardekiom  only  helped  to  extend  its  cultivation  on  that 
island.  The  latter  account  is  probably  the  most  correct 
one,  as  it  is  recorded  that  coffee  in  the  bean,  grown  in  Java, 
was  offered  for  sale  in  the  Amsterdam  market  the  exact 
year  that  Stavornius  states  that  it  was  first  introduced  into 
that  island.  Be  this  as  it  may,  the  undertaking  was 
successful  from  the  beginning,  many  plants  being  propa- 
gated there,  one  of  which,  the  first  seen  in  Europe, 
was  sent  to  the  botanic  garden  in  Amsterdam,  where  it  in 
due  time  bore  fruit.  Many  young  trees  were  subsequently 
propagated  from  this  plant  and  distributed  among  the 
gardens  and  conservatories  of  Europe,  one  of  these  being 
sent  as  a  rare  present  to  the  king  of  France.  The  Dutch 
later  extending  the  cultivation  of  coffee  to  Sumatra, 
Celebes,  Bali,  Timour  and  many  other  of  the  smaller 
islands  of  the  Malay  archipelago. 

The  Coffee  plant  was  introduced  into  India,  on  the 
Malabar  coast,  about  the  year  1700,  from  Aden,  although 
it  is  claimed  to  have  been  grown  in  that  country,  in  the 
province  of  Mysore,  long  anterior  to  that  year,  tradition, 
relating  that  the  plant  was  first  introduced  by  Baba 
Booden,  a  Musselman  pilgrim,  who  brought  "seven 
berries"  with  him  from  Arabia  about  the  year  1600, 
which  he  is  said  to  have  planted  around  his  hut  in  the 
hills  of  Mysore,  near  which  coffee  trees  over  one  hun- 
dred years  old  are  yet  to  be  seen.  The  earliest  written 
account  of  the  cultivation  of  the  coffee  plant  in  India  is 
that  contained  in  a  Dutch  work,  entitled  "  Letters  from 


GEOGRAPHICAL   DISTRIBUTION.  23 

Malabar,"  by  Jacob  Visscher,  chaplain  at  Cochin,  in  one 
of  which  he  states  that  "  the  Coffee  shrub  is  planted  in 
gardens  there  for  pleasure,  and  yields  plenty  of  fruit, 
which  attains  a  proper  degree  of  ripeness,  but  has  not 
the  refined  taste  of  Mocha  coffee."  The  exact  year  in 
which  these  letters  were  written  is  not  known,  but  the 
Dutch  editor's  preface  is  dated  1743,  so  that  it  may  be 
concluded  that  the  plant  must  have  been  introduced  and 
known  in  India  prior  to  that  year,  although  there  is  no 
official  record  made  of  the  plant  or  its  product  in  that 
country  further  back  than  1822,  and  though  undoubtedly 
grown  there  at  an  early  period,  does  not  seem  to  have 
met  with  much  attention  there  up  to  the  close  of  the 
last  century,  no  allusion  being  made  to  it  in  any  Indian 
work  until  we  come  to  "  Heynes'  Tracts,"  published 
in  1800,  in  one  of  which  we  are  merely  told  that  coffee 
was  then  being  sold  in  the  bazaars  of  Bangalore  and 
Seringapatam.  At  the  present  time  Coffee  is  grown  all 
along  India  from  the  northern  limits  of  Mysore  and  south 
to  the  summits  and  slopes  of  the  western  Ghauts  in  British 
Cape  Comorin,  Coorg  and  Travancore,  in  the  Wynaad 
and  Neilgherry  mountains,  as  well  as  in  the  slopes  of  the 
Shevany  and  Pulney  hills.  In  1 880  over  500,000  acres  had 
been  taken  up  for  Coffee  culture  in  the  Cochin,  Madras, 
Mysore,  Travancore,  Belgaum  and  Bengal  presidences, 
of  which  nearly  200,000  acres  have  now  maturing  plants. 
A  very  large  portion  of  the  surface  of  Burmah  which 
still  remains  in  its  primeval  state  of  unproductive  jungle 
— owing  to  the  almost  total  absence  of  natural  energy 
on  the  part  of  the  natives — is  admiirably  adapted  to  the 
successful  and  profitable  cultivation  of  Coffee.  While  in 
the  hilly  districts  of  the  east  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Siam, 
Cochin-China  and  the  Straits  settlements,  the  cultivation 
of  Coffee  is  carried  on  to  a  limited  extent,  some  fine 
samples  being  shown  at  the  Exhibition  of  1862. 


24  GEOGRAPHICAL   DISTRIBUTION. 

The  Coffee  plant  was  introduced  from  Java  into  the 
island  of  Ceylon  by  the  Dutch  in  1720,  where  they 
began  to  cultivate  it  without  any  successful  results,  their 
efforts  being  confined  to  the  lowlands  in  the  districts  of 
Galle  and  Negonogo,  the  location  proving  unfavorable 
in  soil  and  temperature,  the  natives  being  also  opposed 
to  the  innovation.  But  although  some  coffee  of  excel- 
lent quality  was  produced,  notwithstanding  these  ob- 
stacles, it  was  found  that  it  could  not  be  cultivated  there 
to  advantage,  when  compared  with  the  Java  product. 
Yet  though  suspended  for  a  time  by  the  Dutch,  it  was 
not  entirely  abandoned  by  the  native  Cingalhese,  who 
having,  in  the  meantime,  learned  the  commercial  value 
of  the  article,  continued  to  grow  it  in  small  quantities,  so 
that  after  the  British  obtained  possession  of  the  island 
the  Moors,  who  collected  it  in  the  villages,  brought  the 
hulled  beans  to  Galle  and  Colombo,  to  barter  them  for 
cutlery,  cotton  and  trinkets.  It  is  claimed,  on  the  other 
hand,  to  have  been  grown  in  Ceylon  long  before  the 
arrival  of  the  Dutch,  and  even  the  Portuguese,  but  that  the 
preparation  of  a  beverage  from  its  fruit  was  unheard  of 
by  the  natives,  who  only  employed  its  tender  leaves  for 
their  curries,  and  its  delicate,  jassamine-like  flowers  for 
ornamenting  their  shrines  and  temples.  On  the  occupa- 
tion of  Ceylon,  after  its  concession  to  the  British  in 
1825,  however,  the  English  troops  found  the  coffee  tree 
growning  in  profusion  in  the  vicinity  of  the  temples  in 
Kandy,  and  also  large  coffee  gardens,  highly  cultivated, 
were  found  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Mahawelli  and 
close  to  the  palace  of  Hangaurau. 

The  coffee  plant  was  introduced  into  the  Phillipine 
Islands  by  Spanish  missionaries  from  Java  about  1740, 
but  a  species  of  wild  coffee  trees  have  been  found  on  the 
island  of  Luzon,  the  berries  being  left  ungathered,  the 


GEOGRAPHICAL    DISTRIBUTION.  25 

natives  being  ignorant  of  their  use  or  preparation,  there 
being  well-authentic  instances  of  the  same  kind  at  the 
present  day  where  the  natives  wonder  what  is  done  with 
the  berries  when  hulled  and  cleaned,  whether  it  is  eaten 
or  for  what  purpose  intended.  It  was  first  introduced 
into  the  islands  of  Bourbon  and  Mauritius  by  the 
French  through  Du  Fougerais  Grenier  in  1717,  from 
Arabia  and  from  Mozambique  to  Madagascar  by  natives 
about  the  same  period. 

The  island  of  Borneo  grows  good  Coffee,  and  since 
the  country  has  been  opened  up  to  settlers  some 
200,000  acres  of  forest  lands  have  been  selected  by  Can- 
tonese, European  and  Australian  planters  for  this  pur- 
pose, the  gardens  around  Silam  particularly  being  very 
encouraging  as  regards  the  new  product  With  the 
splendid  and  well-proportioned  rain-fall  Coffee  grows 
extremely  well,  especially  Liberian  Coffee,  for  which  the 
soil  and  climate  of  that  island  seems  well  adapted.  Coffee 
cultivation  is  carried  on  there  in  the  gardens  of  the  Euro- 
peans and  thrives  remarkably  well,  while  the  Malays 
state  that  it  is  grown  extensively  by  the  Dyaks  of  the  Pon- 
tianak  river  for  the  use  of  that  settlement,  but  its  culti- 
vation on  an  extensive  or  systematic  scale  has  not  been 
encouraged,  the  government  not  wishing  to  create  a  com- 
petition with  Java.  The  hills  on  the  mainland  opposite 
Lubuhan  are  well  adapted  for  its  successful  cultivation, 
since  there  Coffee  can  be  grown  without  the  trouble  and 
expense  of  raising  trees  amongst  the  plantations  to  pro- 
tect the  plants  from  the  sun,  as  has  to  be  done  in  so 
many  other  countries.  It  is  also  systematically  cultivated 
in  the  islands  of  Guinea,  Fiji,  the  Friendly  and  Hawaiian 
Islands,  as  well  as  in  many  others  of  the  South  Pacific 
ocean.  The  Coffee  plant  having  been  in  existence  in 
Samoa  and  other  islands  of  that  group  for  some  years 


26  GEOGRAPHICAL   DISTRIBUTION. 

past  where  it  is  found  to  flourish  luxuriantly,  proving 
the  suitability  of  the  soil  and  cHmate,  but  in  consequence 
of  never  being  scientifically  treated  there  it  has  not  as 
yet  become  an  article  of  commerce  from  these  islands. 
Coffee  cultivation  has  been  successfully  introduced  into 
Caledonia  and  other  groups  in  the  South  Pacific,  which, 
in  the  course  of  a  few  years,  will  probably  form  an  impor- 
tant export,  the  trees  raised  there  from  seed  bearing  fruit 
in  the  fourth  year.  In  Honolulu  its  cultivation  is  also 
progressing,  large  plantations  having  been  laid  out  with 
a  view  to  supplying  the  markets  of  Chili,  Peru,  Sydney 
and  California. 

The  mountain  ranges  on  the  northern  coast  of  Aus- 
tralia from  Moreton  bay  to  Torres  straits,  and  other  parts 
of  that  section,  are  recommended  for  Coffee  cultivation, 
while  in  Queensland  the  plant  has  long  been  successfully 
grown,  but  it  has  not  as  yet  become  an  article  of  export 
there,  the  plantations  having  recently  suffered  much 
from  disease.  It  has  been  found  to  thrive  well,  however, 
in  the  vicinity  of  Brisbane,  Cardwell  and  other  northern 
districts,  especially  among  the  sheltered  ridges  of  the 
Herbert  and  Endeavor  rivers,  these  sites  offering  the 
most  favorable  conditions,  the  smaller  farmers  finding 
that  Coffee  pays  them  better  than  corn  or  potatoes,  sev- 
eral of  them  having  recently  sold  to  the  merchants  of 
Brisbane  some  of  their  product  as  high  as  20  cents  per 
pound.  This  Hst  does  not  by  any  means  exhaust  the 
possible  sections  in  the  South  Pacific  where  Coffee  culti- 
vation has  been  tried  with  great  advantage,  but  simply 
touches  upon  some  of  the  chief  centres  adapted  to  the 
enterprise. 


INTRODUCTION    INTO   AMERICA.  27 


The  history  of  the  first  introduction  of  the  coffee  plant 
into  the  new  world  is  as  romantic  as  it  is  interesting.  In 
the  year  17 14  the  French  king,  Louis  XIV,  was  pre- 
sented by  the  magistrates  of  Amsterdam  with  a  fine 
specimen  of  the  Coffee  plant,  almost  five  feet  high  and  in 
full  foliage,  from  the  botanic  garden  of  that  city.  This 
plant  was  carefully  nursed,  and  from  it  some  sprouts  were 
sent  to  Martinique  in  17 17,  being  committed  to  the  care 
of  De  Clieux,  an  officer  in  the  French  naval  service,  who 
subsequently  proved  himself  worthy  of  the  trust  reposed 
in  him.  The  voyage  being  long  and  the  weather  unfa- 
vorable, the  whole  ship's  crew  were  at  length  reduced  to 
a  short  allowance  of  water,  all  the  young  plants  dying 
except  one  for  lack  of  nourishment.  It  was  at  this 
juncture  that  this  zealous  patriot  divided  his  own  scanty 
allowance  with  the  plant  committed  to  his  care,  happily 
succeeding  in  bringing  it  safe  to  Martinique  uninjured, 
where  it  afterwards  flourished  and  from  which  was 
propagated  sufficient  to  supply  the  adjacent  islands,  De 
Tour  claiming  that  from  this  single  plant  was  produced  the 
almost  innumerable  varieties  now  to  be  found  on  the 
American  continent. 

In  1718,  however,  the  Dutch  colony  of  Surinam  began 
to  introduce  and  cultivate  Coffee,  from  plants  received 
from  Java.  In  1722  the  French  governor  of  the  adjoining 
colony  of  Cayenne,  having  business  in  Surinam,  contrived, 
by  an  artifice,  to  bring  away  with  him  from  there  a  small 
Coffee  plant,  which,  in  the  year  1725,  had  produced  many 
thousands,  which  were  distributed  among  all  the  French 
colonies  on  the  mainland,  its  cultivation  being  extended 
to  Para  from  Cayenne,  by  the  French,  in  1732;  the  first 


28  INTRODUCTION   INTO   AMERICA. 

Coffee  plantation  opened  in  Brazil  being  commenced  in 
that  province  a  few  years  later.  Its  cultivation,  however, 
made  little  or  no  progress  in  that  now  world-famous 
Coffee-growing  country  until  1767,  when  its  cultivation 
was  still  further  extended  to  the  province  of  Maranhao, 
where  itsoon  increased  rapidly  under  careful  and  judicious 
management. 

In  1774  a  Belgian  monk,  named  Molke,  procured 
some  plants  from  one  of  the  prosperous  Maranhao 
estates,  and  carried  them  to  Rio  de  Janeiro,  the  first  one 
being  planted  in  the  garden  of  the  Capuchin  monastery 
of  Adjuda,  then  situated  in  the  suburbs,  but  now  almost 
in  the  centre  of  that  city.  This  plant  prospered  so  well 
under  his  care,  and  he,  becoming  convinced  of  its  future 
importance  as  a  valuable  acquisition  to  the  industries  of 
the  country,  that  a  few  years  later  he  cleared  a  planta- 
tion for  its  systematic  and  more  extensive  cultivation. 
Joachim  Bruno,  the  then  Bishop  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  also 
perceiving  the  valuable  benefits  to  be  derived  by  the 
country  from  Coffee  cultivation,  and  to  whom  Brazil 
is  indebted  for  the  introduction  and  cultivation  of  many 
of  its  now  valuable  trees  and  plants,  was  accustomed  to 
distribute  the  seeds  of  the  coffee  produced  on  Molke's 
plantation  and  the  garden  of  the  monastery  among  the 
religious  institutions  of  his  diocese,  personally  recom- 
mending and  encouraging  its  cultivation  by  them,  at  the 
same  time  presenting  many  specimens  to  the  laity.  From 
this  simple  and  unostentatious  beginning,  has  grown  the 
extensive  coffee-lands  of  to-day  in  Brazil,  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  acres  of  land  being  devoted  to  its  culture 
at  the  present  day,  over  ;^  100,000,000  being  invested  in 
the  industry. 

From  Brazil  the  coffee  plant  was  later  carried  to  Peru, 
Chili,  Paraguay  and  other  South  American  countries. 


INTRODUCTION    INTO   AMERICA.  29 

while  from  Martinique  it  was  first  introduced  into 
Jamaica  by  Sir  Nicholas  Lawes  in  1732,  a  special  act  of 
Parliament  being  passed  in  that  year  to  encourage  and 
foster  its  cultivation  on  that  island.  Coffee  culture  is 
claimed  to  have  been  first  introduced  into  San  Domingo 
by  wild  fowl  who  carried  the  seeds  in  their  craws  from 
one  of  the  neighboring  islands  about  1735,  being  later 
introduced  to  the  smaller  islands  of  the  Antilles  by  the 
French  themselves. 

The  Spaniards  procured  some  plants  from  Martinique, 
and  undertook  its  cultivation  in  Cuba,  Porto  Rico  and 
others  of  their  possessions  in  the  West  Indies  about  1750, 
its  culture  prospering  well  in  these  islands  until  replaced 
later  by  the  less  expensive  and  more  profitable  sugar 
industry,  but  it  was  not  until  1784  that  they  undertook 
its  cultivation  in  their  possessions  on  the  mainland.  In 
that  year  Bartholemew  Blandin  started  a  plantation  in  the 
Chacao  valley,  situated  about  a  league  from  the  now 
famous  coffee-growing  district  of  Caracas,  a  Dr.  Sligo,  soon 
afterwards,  following  Blandin's  example  in  the  equally 
famous  district  of  Maracaibo,  the  new  branch  of  industry 
being  soon  generally  adopted  throughout  Venezuela, 
Columbo,  Ecuador  and  Bolivia,  where  several  varieties 
are  grown,  particularly  throughout  the  Yungas  district, 
the  best  product  being  valued  as  not  inferior  to  the  far- 
famed  Mocha  itself. 

In  1 8 18  the  profitableness  of  coffee  culture  in  the  West 
Indies  led  to  the  establishment  of  extensive  plantations  in 
Mexico  in  the  cantons  of  Orizaba  and  Cordova,  which 
in  1825  were  in  a  most  flourishing  state,  its  cultivation 
in  that  country  being  still  further  extended  to  the  valleys 
of  the  interior,  in  1826  there  being  in  Cuentla  and 
Cuenmarca  alone  estates  containing  as  many  as  500,000 
coffee  trees.     Elsewhere  in   Mexico  at  the  time  much 


3©  INTRODUCTION    INTO   AMERICA. 

attention  was  bestowed  in  extending  its  cultivation, 
great  hopes  being  entertained  that  every  available  spot 
would  be  occupied  in  its  cultivation  and  that  its  people 
would  be  largely  engaged  in  its  cultivation  and  exporta- 
tion to  foreign  countries.  But  the  civil  disorders  which 
begun  so  soon  after  its  introduction  to  that  country  and 
which  continued  for  so  long  a  time  after  paralyzed  the 
industry  in  its  infancy,  disappointing  these  hopes  so 
much  so  that  the  production  of  coffee  in  Mexico  has  been 
almost  limited  to  supplying  the  home  demand.  Now, 
however,  a  brighter  era  has  arrived,  more  attention  being 
given  to  its  cultivation  in  that  country,  her  coffee  product 
steadily  increasing  and  improving  from  year  to  year. 
From  Mexico  the  cultivation  of  the  coffee  plant  spread 
through  Guatamala  to  Nicaragua,  Honduras,  Salvador 
and  Costa  Rica,  until  it  is  or  will  be  grown  throughout 
all  the  Central  and  South  American  countries. 

Efforts  have  been  made  from  time  to  time  during  the 
past  twenty  years  to  introduce  the  cultivation  of  coffee 
into  the  United  States,  many  thousands  of  plants  being 
distributed  throughout  Florida,  Texas  and  Lower  Cali- 
fornia with  that  object  in  view.  Reported  results  to  the 
Agricultural  Department  in  Washington  from  these  distri- 
butions lead  to  the  belief  that  the  climate  is  too  cold  for  its 
production  for  commercial  purposes.  Some  years  ago 
the  department  received  a  sample  of  coffee  berries  which 
had  been  gathered  from  plants  said  to  have  been  grown 
in  the  open  air  near  the  Manatee  river  in  Florida.  It  was 
afterwards  learned  upon  investigation  that  these  plants 
had  been  protected  during  the  coldest  nights  by  canvas 
coverings,  and  in  some  instances  with  blankets,  yet  it  is 
admitted  that  while  it  is  more  than  likely  that  in  the 
extreme  southern  parts  of  Florida  the  coffee  plant 
would  thrive  without  protection  and  in  the  open  air,  the 


INTRODUCTION    INTO   AMERICA.  3I 

^  I  ' ' ■ ""^ 

topographical  conformation  of  that  part  of  the  State  is 
most  unfavorable  for  its  commercial  cultivation.  Again, 
in  the  extreme  southern  part  of  California  climatic  condi- 
tions favorable  to  its  production  has  been  found,  but  so  far 
little  encouragement  has  been  received  from  the  efforts  to 
cultivate  the  plant  in  that  section.  Some  years  ago 
Liberian  coffee-plants  were  introduced  by  the  Agricultural 
Department,  this  species  being  hardier  and  needing  less 
care  and  attention  when  transplanted  to  other  countries. 
But,  contrary  to  all  precedent  and  expectations,  they 
were  found  to  require  a  warmer  climate  and  more  conge- 
nial topographic  conditions  than  the  Arabian  species 
already  tried.  Here  it  is  a  fact  worthy  of  note,  that  in 
many  of  the  countries  into  which  the  coffee  plant  has 
been  introduced,  indigenous  varieties  were  subsequently 
discovered.  This  is  more  particularly  true  of  Liberia, 
Mauritius,  Malabar  and  Manilla  in  the  Eastern  Hemi- 
sphere, and  in  Mexico,  Costa  Rica,  Bolivia,  Peru  and 
Brazil  in  the  Western.  No  less  than  sixteen  different 
species  being  claimed  to  have  been  discovered  in  the 
latter  country  alone. 


OH^VI^^:^!^    III. 


y^HIS  now  important  and  valuable  article  of  food  was 
I  y\  known  to  the  early  inhabitants  of  Ethiopia,  where 
its  virtues  were  first  discovered  and  used,  as  Bim, 
signifying  "  brown  "  or  "  roasted."  In  Arabia  it  is  termed 
Kawah,  meaning  ''  strength "  or  "  vigor,"  the  infusion 
being  called  Quahouch;  while  to  the  Turks  it  is  known  as 
Chaube  in  the  bean,  and  Kahve  in  the  liquid  state;  to  Per- 
sians, Karweh;  to  the  natives  of  the  Malay  Archipelago  as 
Kopi,  and  finally  Kaffa  or  Caffia  by  the  inhabitants  of 
that  district,  situated  in  the  Province  of  Narca,  in  south- 
eastern Abyssinia,  where  it  is  to  be  found  growing  in  wild 
abundance,  even  at  the  present  day,  whence  its  botanical 
name,  Coffea,  adopted  by  Linnaeus  and  others. 

The  genus  known  as  Coffea  is  divided  by  botanists 
into  some  sixty  species,  of  which  fifteen  are  referred  to 
Africa,  seven  to  Asia  and  about  twenty-two  to  America ; 
but  there  is  abundant  reason  for  supposing  that  the 
majority  of  these  so-called  species  are  but  mere  varieties, 
a  single  genus^  due  to  different  conditions  of  soil,  climate 
and  cultivation,  three  of  which  it  will  be  sufficient  for  all 
practical  purposes  to  distinguish  in  this  work.  It  is 
classed  botanically  as  a  species  coming  under  the  head 
of  the  Pentayidria  of  Linnaeus  and  the  family  Riibicece, 
although  by  others  it  is  placed  among  the  Cinchonaceces 
family  of  plants  which  comprise  numerous  species  of 
tropical  berry-bearing  shrubs,  one  of  which  only  is 
known  to  possess  valuable  properties  celebrated  for  the 


34  BOTANICAL   CHARACTERISTICS  AND   FORM. 

agreeable  and  stimulating   effect  of  an   infusion   made 
from  its  roasted  albumen. 

The  common  Coffee  shrub  is  an  evergreen  plant,  which, 
under  natural  conditions,  grows  to  a  height  of  from 
eighteen  to  twenty  feet,  having  the  appearance  of  an 
upright,  slender  tree,  with  main  stem  very  erect,  and  free 
from  branches  for  the  greater  part  of  its  height,  but 
opening  at  the  top  into  drooping  branches,  few  but  long, 
with  an  abundance  of  fine  fibrous  roots  under  ground, 
and  an  all-important  top-root.  But  in  a  state  of  cultiva- 
tion it  is  a  shrub  of  close  and  systematic  growth  of  low- 
standing,  and  averaging  only  from  four  to  six  feet  in 
height,  its  upward  growth  being  checked  by  the  pruning- 
knife  of  the  cultivator,  and  also  trained  by  frequent  cut- 
ting and  topping  so  as  to  assume  a  pyramidal  form  for 
the  purpose  of  increasing  the  quantity  and  improving 
the  quality  of  its  product  as  well  as  to  facilitate  the  pick- 
ing of  its  crop.  The  branches  are  bracheate,  horizontal, 
simple  and  opposite,  growing  regularly  from  the  ground 
up,  but  trailing  towards  the  top,  cylindrical  in  form, 
flexible,  loose  and  expanding  out  and  downwards  like 
those  of  the  apple  tree,  and  extremely  pleasing  in  general 
appearance.  The  leaves  are  from  five  to  six  inches  in 
length,  and  from  two  to  three  wide  in  the  middle 
when  full  grown,  oblong-ovate,  accuminate,  smooth,  and 
of  a  dark,  shiny-green  color  on  the  upper  surface,  but  pale 
underneath,  firm  and  leathery  in  texture,  closely  resem- 
bling those  of  the  Portuguese  laurel,  continuing  three 
years,  and  possessing  slightly  tonic  and  stimulating  pro- 
perties. The  flowers,  which  are  produced  in  dense 
clusters  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves  fitting  close  to  the 
axils,  are  funnel-shaped  and  small  but  numerous,  having 
a  five-toothed  calyx,  a  tubular  five-parted  corolla^ 
five  stamens  and  a  single  bifid  style,  snow-white  in  color, 


BOTANICAL   CHARACTERISTICS   AND    FORM.  35 

possessing  a  rich,  fragrant  odor,  approaching  that  of  the 
jessamine,  the  plants  in  blossom  having  a  peculiarly  rich 
and  attractive  appearance,  the  bloom  being  very  evanes- 
cent and  of  short  duration,  but  are  quickly  followed  by 
fruit,  there  being  generally  two,  sometimes  three,  relays 
of  blossoms  before  all  the  buds  mature,  until  after  a  day 
or  two,  when  they  gradually  turn  brown  and  fade 
away;  the  slower  and  more  gradual  this  process  the 
better  for  the  crop,  which  is  always  estimated  by  the 
abundance  of  the  blossoms.  The  fruit,  which  quickly 
follows  in  the  hollow  of  the  leaves,  is  a  fleshy  or  "  pulpy  " 
berry,  at  first  greenish  and  hard  to  the  touch,  assumes 
a  yellowish  hue  as  it  continues  to  ripen  under  the  meri- 
dian sun,  the  color  deepening  not  regularly  but  by  crim- 
son or  scarlet  shades  and  tints  which  spread  over  the 
surface,  having  at  this  stage  the  size  and  appearance  of  a 
small  cherry,  assuming  a  dark-red  or  deep,  glossy  purple 
black  color  with  a  smooth  and  bloomless  cuticle  as  it 
matures.  In  both  states  of  flower  and  fruit  nature  is 
nowhere  so  profuse  and  beautiful  in  the  variety  of  its 
colors  and  forms.  The  plant,  being  an  evergreen,  the 
foliage  is  always  fresh,  and,  though,  in  the  autumn  season, 
the  blossoms  appear  scattered  among  the  dark-green 
leaves,  resembling  flakes  of  snow,  they  are  hardly  ever 
absent  from  the  tree.  It  continues  to  put  forth  fruit, 
while  the  blossoms  are  arriving  at  maturity,  and  nothing 
is  more  singular  or  striking  of  its  kind  than  its  producing 
capabilities,  as  at  all  seasons,  leaves,  blossoms  and  ripe 
fruit  are  to  be  seen  on  the  same  tree  at  the  same  time, 
and  the  fruit  may  be  gathered  at  any  period,  but  the 
regular  harvests  are  usually  two  in  the  course  of  a  year. 
Each  fruit  contains  two  seeds  embedded  in  a  yellowish 
pulp,  the  seeds  being  again  enclosed  in  a  thin  membra- 
neous parchment.     The  Epicarp   or    outer-skin   of   the 


:^6  BOTANICAL   CHARACTERISTICS   AND   FORM. 

berry  is  at  first  dark-green  in  color,  but  assumes  a 
yellow  and  finally  a  bright-scarlet  color  as  it  ripens, 
becoming  dark-purple  as  it  dries,  having  a  little  circular 
area  at  the  summit  and  a  callous  point  through  it.  In 
this  condition  it  contains  a  mucilaginous,  saccharine, 
glutinous  substance,  technically  termed  the  "  pulp,"  a  suc- 
culent, sweet  and  palatable  matter,  closely  enveloping  the 
seeds,  fi-equently  eaten  by  the  pickers.  Another  sub- 
stance, known  as  the  Mesocarp,  secures  and  separates  the 
Pyrenes  or  seeds,  and  as  the  fruit  dries  this  mesocarp 
hardens  and  becomes  part  of  the  shell  or  hull  surround- 
ing the  seeds,  which  it  becomes  necessary  to  remove  by 
a  milling  or  hulling  process  in  order  to  free  them  from 
this  covering.  These  pyrenes  or  seeds  are  again  invested 
by  a  cartilaginous  membrane  termed  the  Endocarp,  but 
commonly  known  as  the  "  parchment,"  a  papery,  elastic 
substance,  loosely  but  completely  enveloping  them.  On 
removing  this  parchment  we  have  exposed  two  small, 
oval  seeds  facing  each  other,  though  sometimes  there  is 
but  one  called  from  its  shape  male  or  "  pea-berry."  These 
seeds,  which  constitute  the  raw  Coffee  of  commerce,  are 
plano-convex  in  form,  the  flat  surfaces  which  are  laid 
against  each  other  within  the  berry,  having  a  longitudinal 
furrow  or  groove  extending  their  entire  length.  When 
first  exposed  they  are  of  a  soft,  semi-translucent  bluish  or 
greenish  color,  afterwards  becoming  hard,  tough  or  flinty 
in  texture,  in  which  state  it  is  known  as  *'  rice  coffee,"  the 
bulk  of  which  forms  the  Coffees  of  commerce.  This 
seed  or  "  bean  "  as  it  is  called  in  trade  is  still  incased  in 
what  is  known  as  the  Testa,  another  covering  which 
forms  an  integument  of  the  seed  and  which  is  known  to 
commerce  as  the  "  silver-skin,"  the  mass  of  the  coffee 
beneath  this  testa  being  termed  the  Albumen.  Contained 
in  this  albumen  and  embedded  near  its  base  is  to  be  found 


SUB-VARIETIES.  37 


the  Embryo.  The  first  of  these  structures,  that  is,  the  epi- 
carp,  mesocarp  and  endocarp,  belong  to  the  fruit  or  berry, 
the  other  three,  that  is,  the  testa,  albumen  and  embryo,  being 
essentially  parts  of  the  seed  or  bean.  The  uses  of  these 
various  structures  surrounding  the  embryo  are  to  protect 
it  from  injury  and  at  the  same  time  supply  it  with  proper 
nourishment  until  such  time  as  it  is  enabled  to  take  care  of 
itself  The  testa  or  silver-skin  enveloping  every  part  of 
the  albumen,  following  and  dipping  into  the  furrow  on 
the  face  of  the  Coffee  bean  bjr  its  tough,  leatherly  nature, 
acts  as  an  effectual  protection  to  the  delicate  structures  con- 
tained within.  The  albumen,  bearing  the  same  relation 
to  the  bean  that  flour  does  to  wheat,  the  white-meat  to 
cocoanut,  and  the  aromatic,  ruminated  secretion  t©  the 
nutmeg.  It  is  a  secretion,  found  in  the  internal  of  the 
seed,  enveloping  the  embryo  plant,  and  for  the  support 
of  which  it  is  destined  when  it  first  begins  to  germinate. 
Each  perfect  Coffee  berry  should  contain  two  such 
oval  seeds,  placed  facing  each  other,  the  flat  sides  oppo- 
site ;  but  it  frequently  occurs  that  only  one  seed  forms, 
the  other  becoming  abortive,  and  variously  known  as 
"virgin"  "male"  or  ''pea-berry."  Coffee  seeds  are 
generally  termed  "  beans "  in  commerce,  a  term  not 
derived  from  any  resemblance  they  may  have  to  a  bean  ; 
while,  again,  they  are  termed  by  many  as  "  berries,"  the 
latter  term  being  applicable  only  to  the  fruit  or  pod,  the 
term  "  bean  "  being  more  appropriate  to  the  seed. 

According  to  some  botanists,  there  is  but  one  genus 
of  the  Coffee  plant, —  Coffea  Arabica, — others,  again, 
contending  that  there  are  two  separate  and  distinct 
species,  classified  as  Coffea  Orientalis  and  Coffea  Occiden- 
talis.     While  admitting  but  one  genus,  the  difference  in 


38 


SUB-VARIETIES. 


size,  appearance  and  product  being  attributed  by  them 
to  a  variation  in  soil,  climate  and  methods  of  cultiva- 
tion, there  are  three  principal  varieties,  however,  readily 
distinguished  and  recognized  by  those  who  have  much 
to  do  with  it,  and  are  known  to  commerce  as  Coffea 
Arabica,  Coffea  Liberica  and  Coffea  Maragogipe,  lately 
discovered  in  Brazil,  all  of  which  or  their  transplants 
furnish  the  Coffees  of  commerce. 


Coffea  Arabica, 


Or  "Arabian  Coffee  plant,"  is  the  best-known  species, 
being  an  evergreen,  partaking  more   of  the  nature  of 


SUB-VARIETIES.  39 


a  shrub,  which,  in  a  state  of  cultivation,  varies  in  height 
from  four  to  six  feet,  its  foliage  resembling  that  of 
Portuguese  laurel.  The  trunk  is  erect  and  slender, 
averaging  about  three  inches  in  diameter  and  covered 
with  a  whitish-brown  bark,  rather  rough  in  appearance. 
The  branches  are  numerous,  ordinarily  bending  down- 
wards when  the  plant  begins  to  grow  old,  but  when 
young  and  vigorous  extend  in  a  round  form  like  an 
umbrella.  The  wood  is  very  limber  and  pliable,  so  much 
so  that  the  ends  of  the  longest  branches  may  be  bent 
down  to  within  three  inches  of  the  ground  without 
snapping.  The  leaves  are  oval  in  form,  dark  green  in 
color,  shiny  and  sharp  pointed  as  those  of  the  citron 
tree,  ranged  on  the  branches  opposite,  but  at  a  little 
distance  from  each  other.  The  flowers  or  blossoms  are 
also  numerous,  clustering  with  projecting  antlers,  snowy- 
white  and  very  fragrant,  but  of  short  duration,  disap- 
pearing quick,  but  rapidly  followed  by  the  fruit  spring- 
ing apparently  from  them.  The  fruit  is  a  small  berry, 
green  at  first,  but  assuming  a  rich  scarlet  as  it  ripens. 
From  this  species  has  been  propagated  the  numerous 
varieties  now  known  to  commerce.  The  range  of  this 
species  is  at  elevations  of  from  i  ,cx)0  to  4,000  feet  above 
sea-level  between  the  latitudes  of  1 5°  north  and  1 5°  south, 
but  its  cultivation  may  be  extended  for  commercial  pur- 
poses to  36°  north  and  30°  south  in  latitudes  where  the 
temperature  does  not  fall  below  55°;  still  the  most  favor- 
able climate  for  it  would  be  where  the  temperature  does 
not  fall  below  60°  to  80°  in  the  shade,  and  as  to  humidity 
there  should  be  no  month  in  the  year  entirely  devoid  of 
rain,  the  total  of  which  should  range  from  100  to  150 
inches  per  annum,  that  is,  an  absence  of  extremes  of 
temperature  with  a  constant  supply  of  moisture.  This 
species  is   cultivated   chiefly  in  Arabia,  India,  Ceylon, 


40 


SUB-VARIETIES. 


Natal,  Java,  Sumatra  and  other  islands  in  the  Malay- 
Archipelago,  as  well  as  in  Mexico,  the  West  Indies, 
Central  and  South  America  and  recently  in  Austral- 
asia, furnishing  almost  the  whole  of  the  coffees  of 
commerce. 


Coffea  Libericay 


Or  "  Liberian  Coffee  plant,"  which  has  recently  been 
brought  forward  as  a  rival  to  the  Arabian  variety,  is 
an  indigenous  species  found  both  in  a  wild  and  culti- 
vated state  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  and  which  in  an 
adult  cultivated  state  ranges  in  height  from  fifteen  to 
twenty  feet,  being  of  tree-like  habits.  The  trunk  is  thick, 
very  erect,  and  covered  with  a  dark -brown  bark  of  a 
downy  texture.  The  branches  also  differ  from  those  of 
the  Arabian  species  insomuch  as  they  do  not  possess 


SUB  VARIETIES.  4I 


the  horizontal,  drooping  tendency  so  characteristic  of  the 
latter,  being  also  hardier  and  more  prolific.  The  leaves 
are  proportionately  large,  varying  in  length  from  eight  to 
fifteen  inches  and  in  many  instances  from  four  to  five 
inches  in  width  at  their  widest  part.  They  are  dark-green 
in  color,  leathery  in  texture,  and  instead  of  the  wedge- 
shaped  base,  narrowing  as  it  approaches  the  petitole  or 
stalk  ;  it  more  resembles  the  continuation  of  the  extremity 
of  the  leaf  itself.  The  flowers  are  also  fewer,  never  more 
than  six  to  eight  in  a  cluster,  are  much  larger,  but  devoid 
of  fragrance.  The  fruit,  as  may  be  inferred  from  the 
tree-like  habits  of  this  species,  is  extremely  large,  averag- 
ing an  inch  to  an  inch  and  a  quarter  in  length,  ellipsoidal 
in  form,  and  characteristically  pointed  at  both  ends.  It 
lacks  the  bright  red  color  of  the  Arabian  variety,  when 
ripe,  being  commonly  of  a  dull  red,  approaching  brown, 
becoming  black  as  it  dries.  The  pulp  is  also  thicker, 
fibrous  and  more  fleshy,  but  lacking  in  succulence,  and 
cannot  be  eaten ;  the  parchment  being  hard  and  brittle, 
dark-brown  in  color  and  never  clear.  The  testa,  or 
silver-skin,  is  much  stronger,  tougher,  and  more  tightly 
rolled  into  the  deep,  narrow  furrow  on  the  face.  The 
seed  or  bean  is  also  extremely  large  in  size,  peculiar  in 
form,  what  is  known  as  '*  male "  or  "  pea-berry "  in 
form  is  dark-brown  in  color,  solid  and  heavy  in  weight 
and  exceedingly  strong  in  flavor.  Taken  altogether,  the 
wide  divergence  in  the  general  appearance  and  habits  of 
this  variety,  the  culture  of  the  leaves,  lesser  number  of 
flowers,  size,  weight,  color,  peculiar  formation,  and  other 
characteristics,  stamp  it  as  a  distinct  species  of  the  genus 
Coffea. 

Increasing  attention  is  lately  being  devoted  to  this 
species.  It  is  a  native  of  Liberia,  and  is  to  be  found 
growing  wild  in  great  abundance  along  the  whole  of  the 


42  SUB-VARIETIES. 


Guinea  coast  and  is  to  be  distinguished  from  the  ordinary 
shrub  by  much  more  vigorous  growth,  by  affecting  flat, 
low  and  coast  lands  as  well  as  hill  sides,  by  attaining 
greater  size  and  withstanding  greater  extremes  of  cli- 
mate. It  also  possesses  the  additional  advantage  in  that  it 
is  capable  of  improvement  by  cultivation,  and  though  as 
liable  to  disease  as  the  Arabian  plant,  appears  to  be 
affected  only  in  a  minor  degree,  while  on  the  other  hand 
the  product  is  much  coarser  flavored,  which  is  considered 
no  drawback-  to  its  being  used  for  admixture  with 
better  sorts,  by  which  means  it  yields  a  cheap,  yet  gen- 
uine beverage.  Experiments  have  been  lately  tried  in 
Ceylon  of  grafting  the  finer  flavored  Arabian  on  the 
stocks  of  this  species,  thus  producing  a  hybrid  from 
which  great  benefits  are  anticipated  in  the  future.  It 
is  a  species,  moreover,  which  grows  w^ell  in  low  alti- 
tudes, and  would  probably  flourish  is  situations  that  have 
proved  unsuitable  for  the  Arabian  plant,  and  should  it 
come  up  to  the  sanguine  expectations  of  the  Java,  Cey- 
lon, Mexican,  South  American  and  other  planters,  to 
whom  it  has  been  submitted  for  experiment,  there  is  no 
doubt  but  that  it  will  prove  a  formidable  rival  to  the 
species  which  have  hitherto  received  the  exclusive  atten- 
tion of  planters  generally. 


SUB-VARIETIES. 


43 


Coffea  Maragogipe^ 

Or  "  Brazilian  Coffee  plant,"  is  a  new  and  indigenous 
variety,  recently  discovered  in  the  province  of  that  name, 
in  Brazil,  much  larger  than  the  Arabian,  but  smaller  than 
the  Liberian.  It  grows  with  extraordinary  vigor,  com- 
ing into  full  bearing  much  sooner  than  either  of  the  fore- 
going varieties,  trees  of  two  to  three  years  attaining  a 
height  of  eight  to  ten  feet,  being  full  of  fruit  at  that 
age,  the  berry  and  product  per  acre  being  also  larger. 
Planters  who  have  adopted  this  variety  are  so  well 
pleased  with  the  results  obtained  that  they  are  replacing 
the  regular  species  with  it,  all  agreeing  that  in  size  of 


44  OTHER   VARIETIES. 


berry,  style  of  bean,  strength  and  flavor,  it  is  a  species 
to  be  recommended. 

There  are  numerous  other  varieties  of  the  Coffee  plant^ 
closely  allied,  but  still  markedly  distinct  from  the  fore- 
going species,  inasmuch  as  they  do  not  possess  any 
valuable  or  intrinsic  properties,  being  cultivated  only  for 
the  sake  of  their  foliage  or  flowers.  Among  which  is 
that  of  :— 

GofTea  Mauritiana. — Found  on  the  island  of  Mauri- 
tius, and  evidently  belonging  to  the  Arabian  species,  yet 
claimed  by  LaMarche  to  be  specifically  distinct  from  it, 
on  account  of  the  difference  in  the  size  and  form  of  its 
fruit.  This  eminent  botanist  must  have  been  unaccount- 
ably negligent  with  respect  to  its  specific  character, 
having  retained  the  description  given  by  Linnaeus  of  the 
Arabian  plant,  which  is  in  the  Plantarium  described  as 
entirely  opposite  to  it. 

Coffea  Guinensis. — A  native  of  Guinea,  on  the 
west  coast  of  Africa,  and  a  shrub  from  one  to  two  feet 
high,  with  flowers  quadrified,  berries  small  and  violet- 
colored,  seeds  two  in  number,  cartilaginous  and  pointed 
at  the  ends ;  but  found  to  be  entirely  devoid  of  the  value- 
able  or  stimulating  properties  so  characteristic  of  those 
of  the  true  Coffee  plant. 

Coffea  Fanenlato. — Another  species,  also  found  on 
the  Guinea  coast,  being  a  shrub  having  a  large  trunk, 
from  seven  to  eight  feet  high,  covered  with  a  gray, 
cracked  bark  and  yielding  a  fruit  totally  different  from 
that  of  Coffee. 

GofTea  Racemora. — A  species  found  in  a  wild  state 
on  the  east  coast  of  Africa,  and  in  a  state  of  cultivation 


OTHER   VARIETIES. 


in  the  vicinity  of  Zanzibar.  It  is  a  small,  upright,  tree- 
like plant  about  six  feet  high,  heavy  in  foliage  and  flow- 
ering, but  devoid  of  fragrance  and  barren  of  fruit. 

Coflfea  Trifora. — A  shrub  of  about  six  feet  high,  found 
in  Othahetai,  foliaceous  and  flowery,  but  producing  no 
fruit.  This  particular  variety  is  also  to  be  found  in 
Jamaica,  San  Domingo,  Martinique  and  other  islands  of 
the  West  Indies.  Many  other  species  such  as  the  Coffea- 
Fambasena^  a  native  of  the  Friendly  Islands,  Coffea 
Ghengalensis,  grown  in  Nepaul,  Coffea  Opulina  and  the 
Cirdorata,  the  latter  being  claimed  to  be  analagous  to  the 
true  Coffee  plant,  and  is  extensively  grown  on  the  island 
of  Tamai,  and  many  others  cultivated  principally  for 
their  seeds. 


OHA^I^O^E^I^   T\r. 


y^HE  principal  points  which  determine  the  value  of 
I  1"^  a  location  for  the  successful  and  profitable  culti- 
vation of  Coffee  are: — (i)  Soil  and  climate;  (2) 
Situation  and  aspect ;  (3)  Temperature  and  rainfall ;  (4) 
Proximity  to  a  river,  and  (5)  Shelter  from  wind  and  wash. 
Most  of  which  are  necessarily  subject  to  variation,  accord- 
ing to  country  and  locality,  shelter  from  wind  being  per- 
haps of  the  most  paramount  importance,  and  which  should 
not  be  sacrificed  for  a  richer  soil,  as  the  latter  can  be  arti- 
ficially supplied  much  quicker  than  the  former. 

Soil  and  climate  are  subjects  of  primitive  importance 
in  the  cultivation  of  Coffee.  The  soil  of  Coffee  lands 
varies  as  widely  almost  as  the  different  countries  in  which 
it  is  grown.  In  Africa,  where  the  plant  is  indigenous,  it 
is  chiefly  composed  of  a  reddish  clay  on  the  West  Coast, 
with  a  hard  sandy  subsoil,  while  on  the  East  Coast  it  is 
found  to  be  composed  chiefly  of  a  dark  loamy  earth. 
The  Arabian  soil,  where  the  plant  is  exotic  and  where 
the  finest  Coffee  is  produced,  is  purely  an  artificial  one, 
while  in  India  it  is  successfully  grown  in  five  different 
kinds  of  soil,  ranging  from  a  dark  chocolate  clay  to  a 
deep  jungle  mould.     The  soil  of  Ceylon  consisting  of  a 


48  SOIL  AND   CLIMATE. 


rich,  dark  earth,  friable  and  mixed  with  blocks  and  small 
stones.  On  the  island  of  Java,  to  the  contrary,  where 
some  of  the  finest  varieties  are  produced,  the  soil  is  prin- 
cipally composed  of  a  black  leaf-mould,  intermixed  with 
fine  sand  and  small  stones,  whereas  in  the  principal 
Coffee-growing  countries  of  the  American  continent  the 
best  crops  produced,  as  a  general  rule,  are  raised  on  rich, 
dark  loamy  lands,  the  subsoil  of  which  are  too  rocky  to 
be  worked  with  a  plow.  The  only  exception  to  the  rule 
being  Brazil,  where  the  soil  varies  to  a  great  extent,  a 
clay  of  terra  rocha  forming  the  chief  upper  and  lower 
subsoil.  The  most  suitable  soil  for  Coffee  cultivation, 
however,  is  that  which  grows  soft  timber,  to  be  found  on 
high  quartzy  ridges,  where  the  land  is  of  a  dark  choco- 
late color,  mixed  with  small  stones,  and  overspread  here 
and  there  with  boulders  of  granite,  as  where  the  soil  is 
dark,  loose  and  full  of  roots,  it  is  sure  to  be  rich  in 
organic  matter,  and  therefore  good  for  Coffee,  which  is  a 
hardy  plant  and  not  on  the  whole  difficult  to  please  in 
this  matter ;  such  a  soil  generally  contains  about  5  per 
cent,  of  its  weight  of  organic  matter  in  combination  with 
other  fertilizing  substances.  Looking  at  Coffee  soil  from 
an  analyst's  standpoint,  it  consists  of  an  organic  part, 
which  when  placed  in  the  fire  will  burn  away,  arid  an 
inorganic  or  mineral  part  which  will  not  burn.  The 
constitution  of  the  first  is  well  known  to  planters,  being 
formed  of  the  remains  of  animals,  insects,  or  minute 
visible  and  invisible  organisms  of  various  kinds,  from  the 
dung  of  animals,  birds,  caterpillars  and  worms,  to  that  of 
roots,  stems  and  leaves  of  decayed  vegetable  matter. 
The  inorganic  part,  consisting  of  sand,  clay,  lime  magne- 
sia and  the  oxides  of  soda,  potash  and  manganese,  includ- 
ing carbonic,  sulphuric  and  phosphoric  acids.  The  pre- 
ponderance of  one  or  more  of  these  natural  divisions, 


SOIL   AND    CLIMATE.  49 


making  the  soil  productive  or  unproductive  as  the  case 
may  be,  while  certain  plants  make  certain  calls  upon  one 
or  more  of  these  substances,  and,  consequently,  such 
must  be  present  and  available  in  a  soil  that  is  to  suit 
them.  A  rich  soil  for  Coffee  generally  contains  about 
five  per  cent.,  or  one-twentieth  of  its  weight,  of  organic 
matter  in  combination  with  other  fertilizing  substances. 
But  as  to  the  best  soil  for  Coffee  in  particular  the  leading 
authorities  differ,  so  that  as  a  broad  principle  it  may 
be  laid  down  that  the  best  soil  is  the  richest,  no  matter 
what  its  color,  whether  it  be  the  valley  silt  of  Arabia, 
the  volcanic  mould  of  Java,  the  jungle  soil  of  India 
and  Ceylon,  or  the  rich  red  earth  of  Brazil.  But  the 
deeper,  freer  and  richer  the  soil,  whatever  it  may  be,  the 
better  as  long  as  it  is  specially  tested  for  phosphoric  acid 
and  potash.  The  latter  is  found  in  abundance  wherever 
a  large  forest  has  been  felled,  burned  grass-land  being 
also  considered  good  for  this  purpose,  as  it  also  contains 
those  very  requisite  properties  of  Coffee  soil. 

If  the  soil  be  naturally  Hght  and  poor  and  washed  by 
every  shower,  the  more  soluble  portions,  together  with 
the  salts  of  the  manure  applied  to  the  trees,  is  generally 
robbed  by  the  heavy  rains.  In  such  a  case  it  is  next  to 
impossible  to  keep  a  plantation  in  a  high  state  of  culti- 
vation without  an  enormous  expense  in  the  constant 
application  of  manure.  Many  plantations  are  again 
subject  to  landslips,  which  are  likewise  produced  by  the 
violence  of  the  rains  ;  in  such  cases  the  destruction  is  most 
disastrous,  and  whenever  landslips  are  frequent  they 
may  be  taken  as  an  evidence  of  a  poor  clay  subsoil. 
The  rain  soaks  through  the  surface,  and  not  being  able 
to  percolate  through  the  clay  with  sufficient  rapidity,  it 
lodges  between  the  two  strata,  loosening  the  upper  sur- 
face, which  sHdes  from  the  greasy  clay,  launched,  as  it 


50  SOIL   AND    CLIMATE. 


were,  by  its  own  gravity,  into  the  valley  below.  This  is 
the  worst  kind  of  soil  for  the  coffee  tree,  whose  long 
tap-root  is  ever  seeking  nourishment  from  beneath.  On 
such  a  soil  it  is  very  common  to  see  a  young  plantation 
giving  great  promise,  but  as  the  trees  increase  in  growth 
the  tap-root  reaches  the  clay  subsoil,  and  the  plantation 
immediately  falls  off.  The  subsoil  is  of  far  more  im- 
portance to  the  coffee  tree  than  the  upper  surface,  as  the 
latter  may  be  improved  by  manure,  while  if  the  former  is 
bad  there  is  no  remedy.  The  first  thing  to  be  considered 
being  the  soil,  and  the  planter  being  satisfied  with  its 
quality,  there  is  another  item  of  equal  importance  to  be 
taken  into  consideration  when  choosing  a  locality  for  a 
coffee  plantation.  This  is  an  extent  of  grazing  land  suf- 
ficient for  the  support  of  cattle  that  may  be  required  for 
producing  manure.  In  countries  with  large  proportions 
of  forests  this  is,  however,  not  always  practicable,  the 
planter  having  recourse  to  artificial  manure. 

The  subject  of  climate,  though  quite  as  important  as 
that  of  soil,  can  yet  be  described  with  more  accuracy. 
The  extreme  limits  of  coffee  cultivation  lie  between  the 
isothermal  lines  of  the  25°  north  and  the  30°  south  of 
the  equator,  but  the  best  zone  of  latitude  is  that  lying 
between  the  20°  north  and  south  of  the  equator,  one 
having  a  mean  temperature  of  65°  to  75°  Fahrenheit. 
A  constant  and  uniform  moisture,  either  natural  or  arti- 
ficial, is  especially  requisite  and  indispensable  to  the  free 
development  of  the  trees,  together  with  a  rainfall  of 
from  75  to  150  inches  per  annum,  falling  early  in  the 
season,  but  must  be  well  distributed  at  the  same  time. 
The  regions,  however,  found  to  be  best  adapted  for  the 
most  successful  and  profitable  cultivation  of  Coffee,  are 
well-watered  mountain  slopes  at  an  elevation  ranging 
from   1,000  to  4,000   feet  above  sea-level,  in  latitudes 


SELECTING    LAND. 


51 


lying  between  15°  north  and  15°  south  of  the  equator, 
although  it  is  profitably  grown  at  the  present  time  from 
25°  north  to  30°  south  of  that  Hne,  but  only  in  situations 
where  the  temperature  does  not  fall  below  55°  at  any 
time. 

As  a  general  rule,  virgin  forest  land  has  been  found 
the  most  suitable  to  break  up  for  Coffee  plantations,  it 
having  become  naturally  enriched  by  decayed  vegetable 
matters,  and  the  burning,  to  which  it  must  first  be 
subjected,  frees  it  from  all  weeds  and  insects.  But 
exceptional  tracts  of  land,  that  have  been  once  under 
cultivation  and  then  allowed  to  run  wild,  also  form 
good  properties,  and  although  the  soil  is  rarely  rich, 
it  is  generally  exposed,  and  always  entails  great  trouble 
and  expense  to  keep  down  the  weeds.  A  temperate 
climate  within  the  tropics  is  to  be  preferred  at  all 
times,  a  certain  degree  of  warmth  and  humidity  com- 
bined being  essential — in  other  words,  an  atmosphere 
resembling  that  of  a  northern  hot-house  produces  the 
finest  crops  of  Coffee,  but,  unfortunately,  it  is  inimical  to 
the  unacclimated  planter  and  favorable  to  weeds.  The 
most  suitable  climate,  under  these  circumstances,  is  pre- 
cisely that  which  Americans  prefer ;  frost,  even  though 
it  be  only  at  night  and  for  a  short  period,  is  fatal,  while 
the  presence  of  water,  preferably  a  running  stream,  is 
most  essential  for  watering  the  young  plants,  as  well 
as  for  the  "  pulping  "  process.  In  a  wooded  country 
the  plantation  may  be  laid  out  in  blocks  of  fifty  acres, 
encircled  by  natural  belts  of  forest ;  but  flat  land  must  be 
avoided,  as  a  wet  soil  is  fatal  to  profitable  coffee-growing, 
and  flat  lands  also  would  entail  great  expenditure  for 
drainage,  while  steep  slopes,  on  the  other  hand,  are  also 
objectionable   on   account   of  the  wash   occasioned   by 


52  SELECTING    LAND. 


rains  carrying  away  both  soil  and  manure,  thus  exposing 
the  roots  of  the  shrubs.  The  top  or  surface-soil  must 
be  fairly  good  in  all  cases,  the  subsoil  may  be,  but  must 
never  be,  composed  of  stiff  clay,  the  shrub  being  essen- 
tially a  lateral  feeder. 

In  opening  a  plantation,  which  is  in  all  cases  to  be 
shaded  by  preserving  a  portion  of  the  original  forest  trees, 
the  first  thing  to  be  done  is — after  having  ascertained  the 
amount  of  land  that  can  be  conveniently  planted  in  one 
season — to  clear  a  wide  road  through  the  underwood 
from  one  end  of  the  block  of  forest  to  the  other,  and  as 
many  at  right  angles  to  the  line  as  may  facilitate  easy 
examination  and  of  thoroughly  inspecting  the  land  to  be 
cleared.  The  next  thing  to  be  done  is  to  cut  another 
wide  line  round  the  entire  portion  to  be  cleared,  leaving 
a  belt  of  from  fifteen  to  twenty  yards  wide  as  a  margin 
which  is  always  to  be  kept  uncleared,  as  this  marginal 
belt  will  be  found  useful  for  shelter.  The  amount  of 
shade  must  be  regulated  according  to  the  value  of  the 
exposure  as  shown  in  the  aspect.  A  great  deal  of  shade 
being  required  on  southern  slopes,  very  little  on  northern 
ones,  and  only  a  moderate  degree  of  shade  being  required 
for  eastern  and  western  slopes.  The  preliminary  lines 
having  been  cleared,  the  whole  of  the  underwood  should 
then  be  cut  down  from  one  end  to  the  other,  and  while  it 
is  yet  green  such  portions  of  the  larger  trees  as  it  may 
be  difficult  to  remove  by  carting  or  dragging  along  the 
ground,  should  be  cut  up  in  pieces,  but  never  burned,  as 
is  frequently  the  custom.  This  work  should  be  com- 
pleted by  the  end  of  December.  The  land  being  thus 
thoroughly  cleared,  lines  of  road  should  be  laid  out  and 
the  usual  linings  and  pit  diggings  carried  out,  and  the 
plants  put  down  immediately  after.  The  next  point  to  be 
attended  to  is  to  plant  out  such  trees  as  are  particularly 


SITUATION    AND    ASPECT.  53 

suited  to  coffee  shading,  and  to  remove  any  kinds  which 
experience  has  proved  to  be  injurious;  these  latter  vary- 
in  the  different  countries.  As  the  shade  trees  grow  up, 
the  same  care  must  be  taken  of  them  as  of  the  coffee 
tree,  as  regards  pruning  or  topping,  the  lower  branches 
being  judiciously  removed,  the  object  being  to  grow  a 
tree  not  only  luxuriant  but  lofty,  in  order  that  it  may 
throw  a  long  shadow  and  so  afford  greater  protection  to 
the  plants  in  its  vicinity.  Another  point  to  be  con- 
sidered in  the  location  of  a  successful  Coffee  plantation 
is  situation,  as  regards  shade,  sun  and  wind,  as  a  location 
and  method  of  cultivation  suited  to  one  climate  may  be 
entirely  unsuited  to  another.  In  sea-coast  or  moist 
climates  planting  without  shade  is  generally  the  custom, 
while  in  dry  arid  chmates  shade  is  indispensable,  as  in 
wet  or  damp  districts  Coffee  cannot  be  grown  to  advan- 
tage under  the  shade  of  the  largest  trees ;  the  methods 
of  cultivation  therefore  should  be  entirely  different  in  the 
differing  districts  or  localities.  To  be  emphatic,  climate 
should  regulate  shade,  that  is,  shade  plantations  thrive  best 
in  hot,  dry  climates,  and  unshaded  in  jnoist  or  humid  ones. 


The  Coffee-plant  in  most  countries  has  been  found  to 
flourish  best,  and  produce  more  abundantly,  and  reach  a 
greater  longevity  on  upland  or  mountain  situations  at 
altitudes  ranging  from  one  to  four  thousand  feet  above 
sea-level;  but  a  mean  elevation  of  three  thousand  feet 
has  been  found  by  experience  to  be  best  adapted  for  its 
most  profitable  culture.  In  the  selection  of  a  site  for  the 
establishment  of  a  coffee  plantation  the  same  general 
rules  are  observed  throughout  all  the  coffee-growing 
countries;  and,  while  an  eastern  or  southern  exposure 


54  SITUATION   AND    ASPECT. 

is  preferable  at  all  times,  it  is  not  essential  under  all 
conditions,  this  general  principle  being  subject  to  modifi- 
cations from  such  causes  as  local  peculiarities  of  climate, 
abundance  of  forest  shade  and  methods  of  special  cul- 
tivation. Many  plantations  situated  at  sea-level  are 
generally  overshadowed  by  thickets  of  dense  foHage, 
while  those  situated  on  mountain  slopes  are  usually 
much  exposed  to  winds  and  wash.  In  the  older  coffee- 
growing  countries  of  the  East  an  eastern  aspect  is 
considered  the  most  desirable,  a  western  exposure  being 
generally  selected  on  the  American  continent,  as  it  loses 
less  of  its  moisture.  The  opposite  slope  being  more 
exposed  to  the  vertical  rays  of  the  sun  thereby  preserves 
a  more  equal  temperature. 

Before  clearing  and  burning  the  planter  should  take 
considerable  pains  to  ascertain  the  values  of  the  different 
aspects  as  regards  sun  and  wind  with  the  view  of  regulat- 
ing the  amount  of  shade  accordingly,  as  it  is  impossible 
to  exaggerate  the  importance  of  the  various  exposures. 
For  the  effects  the  sun's  rays  have  on  certain  aspects  in 
heating  the  soil  and  drying  up  the  plant  are  such  as 
would  be  extremely  difficult  to  believe  had  the  effects 
not  been  verified  by  competent  observers  and  with  the 
aid  of  a  thermometer.  And  as  regards  sites,  northern 
and  southern  slopes  in  particular,  the  difference  between 
the  one  exposure  and  the  other  is  just  what  constitutes 
the  difference  between  green  and  dried  grass,  and  be- 
tween leaves  luxuriously  green  and  leaves  dried  and 
withered.  The  grass  on  the  northern  aspects  being 
green  and  comparatively  fresh,  while  even  in  a  valley 
sheltered  from  drying  winds  the  grass  on  the  southern 
slopes  is  completely  withered.  An  equally  striking  dif- 
ference is  observable  in  the  coffee  plants  grown  on  these 
situations,  those  on  the  northern  slopes  being  full  of 


SITUATION    AND    ASPECT.  55 

health  and  life,  while  those  situated  on  the  southern  are 
yellow,  drooping  and  sickly;  even  in  districts  where  coffee 
will  not  thrive  without  a  considerable  amount  of  shade 
the  plants  thrive  well  with  little  or  even  none  on  a 
northern  bank,  and  look  better  than  on  a  moderately 
shaded  southern  aspect.  Nor  in  the  nursery  is  the 
effect  less  of  aspect,  less  striking,  a  nursery  situated  on 
a  northern  slope  requiring  less  water  and  far  less  shade 
over  the  young  plants  than  in  a  nursery  sloping  towards 
the  south. 

With  regard  to  the  aspect  of  wind  the  subject  is  an 
infinitely  more  difficult  one  than  aspect  as  regards  the 
sun's  rays,  the  value  of  the  latter  being  mathematically 
ascertained,  for  in  countries  full  of  hills  and  ravines  one 
is  constantly  liable  to  be  deceived  as  to  the  points  that 
are  exposed  and  those  that  are  sheltered  from  the  force 
of  the  wind ;  what  is  the  right  side  of  the  hill  for  one 
planter  is  often  the  wrong  side  for  another,  whose 
plantation  is  perhaps  only  a  few  miles  distant.  While 
one  planter  may  rail  against  the  east  wind,  another  will 
be  equally  loud  against  a  west.  The  winds,  however, 
that  are  most  to  be  dreaded  as  being  absolutely  fatal  to 
a  coffee  plantation  are  the  fierce  gales  accompanied  by 
torrents  of  rain.  These  winds  are  injurious  in  two  ways  : 
first,  the  plants  are  blown  about,  their  hold  on  the  soil 
weakened  and  the  tender  rootlets  broken  as  fast  as  they 
are  formed,  and  in  the  second  case,  the  rain  which 
accompanies  such  winds  is  driven  into  the  hillsides  with 
such  force  as  to  occasion  a  certain  amount  of  wash,  the 
particles  of  soil  being  lifted  and  valuable  top  soil  swept 
away  and  utterly  lost.  The  southwest  winds  are  only 
fatally  injurious  on  the  first  barrier;  further  inland  their 
force  is  greatly  modified,  and  to  such  an  extent  that 
little  or  no  injury  results  from  them. 


56  SHELTER   AND    SHADE. 

In  estimating  the  value  and  importance  of  exposures, 
planters  and  others  of  experience  are  frequently  deceived ; 
as  aspects  that  one  would  naturally  conclude  are  very  much 
exposed  often  remain  untouched  by  the  wind,  while  on 
others  apparently  sheltered  it  has  been  known  to  burst 
with  tremendous  force.  Of  aspects  as  regards  wind  there 
are  two  points  that  may  fairly  be  relied  upon.  The  first 
is  the  appearance  of  the  soil  on  the  slopes,  and  the  second 
the  inclination  of  the  forest  trees.  The  soils  on  windy 
slopes  will  be  found  invariably  to  present  a  hardened  and 
washed  appearance,  and  are  deficient  in  decayed  vegetable 
matter  on  the  surface.  The  inclination  of  the  trees, 
also,  and  especially  the  extent  to  which  their  heads  are 
bent,  denotes  how  forcibly  the  wind  strikes  on  these  sites. 
In  summing  up  on  these  important  points  of  aspect  it 
may  be  observed,  as  regards  the  sun's  rays,  it  is  patent 
that  a  northern  aspect  is  the  best,  and  a  southern  one 
the  worst,  because  the  latter  is  exactly  twice  as  hot  as 
the  former.  And  as  regards  the  eastern  and  western 
aspects  there  is  not,  as  regards  heat  arising  from  the 
sun's  rays,  much  to  choose  between  them. 


SHELTER   AND   SH:il.I>E. 

The  worst  enemy  of  the  Coffee  shrub  is  wind,  its  effects 
becoming  apparent  in  pinched  and  stunted  growth  or  in 
lack  of  foliage.  In  situations  where  the  soil  is  soft  and 
yielding  it  does  equal  mischief  by  working  the  stems  in 
the  ground,  so  that  in  a  short  time  a  funnel  is  formed 
round  the  neck  of  the  plant,  and  this  being  continually 
chafed  the  bark  is  worn  off,  the  roots  are  loosened,  and 
the  plant  dies  of  what  is  called  "  wind-wrung."  Should 
it  be  rescued  before  the  bark  is  entirely  worn  off  the 
plant  may  live,  but  it  will  be  extremely  liable  to  attacks 


SHELTER   AND    SHADE.  57 

from  "  lug  worm  "  or  any  other  blight  that  may  be  preva- 
lent in  the  locality.  Belts  of  jungle  or  forest  land  are 
sometimes  left  standing  as  a  protection  from  wind,  but 
opinions  differ  as  to  the  advantage  of  this  plan,  some 
planters  holding  that  more  harm  is  hkely  to  result  from 
the  wind  being  concentrated  into  eddies  instead  of  taking 
its  natural  and  more  equitable  course.  This  question 
can  only  be  decided  by  the  local  surroundings  in  each 
case.  Such  belts  being  sure  to  form  nurseries  for  weeds 
and  vermin  are  not  intended  to  be  permanent,  and  should 
gradually  give  way  to  fruit  or  other  useful  trees.  Some- 
times artificial  shelter  is  erected,  but  is  considered  too 
costly  to  find  general  favor ;  indeed,  in  moderately  shel- 
tered situations,  staking,  combined  with  low  topping, 
ought  to  be  sufificient  to  secure  the  stability  of  the  plant. 
Where  they  are  not,  the  situation  has  little  to  recommend 
it  for  successful  Coffee  culture. 

Shade  is  also  a  consideration  of  great  importance,  and 
the  opinion  now  generally  adopted  is  that  the  wholesale 
felling  of  the  forest  in  some  sections  has  been  altogether 
a  mistake,  and  that  plantations  which  are  now  extinct 
might  still  be  flourishing  had  the  forest  shade  been  at 
least  partially  retained.  The  history  of  Coffee  cultiva- 
tion in  the  East  proves  that  in  hot  climates,  and  where 
prolonged  periods  of  drought  may  recur.  Coffee  will  not 
flourish  permanently,  except  under  shade.  In  a  state  of 
nature  the  Coffee  plant  universally  affects  shade.  This 
is  the  more  remarkable,  though  the  seeds  are  deposited 
by  wild  animals  and  birds  as  freely  on  open  grass-lands 
as  in  forests.  The  suspicion  that  the  "  bover  leaf  disease," 
and  other  immediate  causes  of  decay,  are  only  induced 
by  weakened  state  of  the  shrubs  consequent  upon  their 
exposure  to  light  and  periods  of  drought,  is  supported 
by  the  fact  that  where  shade  trees  are  found  standing 


58  CLEANING   AND    BURNING. 

upon  an  abandoned  plantation,  they  are  still  surrounded 
by  a  surviving  remnant  of  Coffee  bushes.  The  question 
as  to  where  shade  is  necessary  is,  however,  one  of  climate, 
as  it  has  been  proved  that  it  is  not  universally  beneficial. 
The  advantages  to  be  derived  from  it  in  very  hot  climates 
being :  diminished  exhaustion  and  consequently  increased 
longevity  of  the  plant,  reduced  cost  of  cultivation,  a  con- 
servation of  the  nutritious  properties  of  the  soil,  and  an 
actual  increase  of  them,  as  the  cover  given  to  the  ground 
causes  the  surface  vegetable  matter  to  decay  more  rapidly. 
And  provided  the  tree  be  a  subsoil  feeder,  the  shedding 
of  the  leaves  will  yield  a  positive  gain  of  surface  matter 
which  the  roots  of  the  Coffee  plant  would  otherwise 
never  have  reached.  In  addition  to  these  there  is  the 
direct  value  of  the  timber  grown  on  the  estate.  The 
only  serious  drawback  to  shade  would  seem  to  be  a 
diminished  yield  of  Coffee,  but  this  is  fully  atoned  for  by 
the  increased  longevity  of  the  plant. 

CL.EA.1VI1VG    A.ISri>    BUPtlVIlVO. 

When  forest  land  is  taken  for  cultivation  the  first  step  is 
to  effectually  clear  it  of  all  timber  and  underwood,  the 
latter  being  first  cut  by  means  of  a  "  cattie  "  or  machete, 
the  large  trees  being  felled  from  the  top,  and  their 
branches  lopped  off  so  as  to  compact  the  pile,  as  other- 
wise the  "  burn  "  will  only  be  partial.  A  fine  day,  after 
the  night's  dew  has  evaporated,  is  best  for  setting  fire  to 
the  prostrate  mass,  the  advantages  of  a  thorough  burn 
being  that  subsequent  operations  are  greatly  facilitated, 
and  that  the  weeds  and  insects  are  thoroughly  destroyed, 
while  the  disadvantage  is  that  the  upper  soil  is  burnt 
and  rendered  unfit  for  filling  into  the  holes.  That  injury 
may,  to  a  great  extent,  be  obviated  by  "  lining  and  pit- 
ting "  the  land  beforehand,  by  which  means  the  surface 


LINING   AND   MARKING.  59 

soil  would  be  mostly  covered  over  with  the  earth  taken 
out  of  the  pits,  and  thus  be  protected  from  the  fire.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  "  lines  "  could  not  be  marked  out 
with  accuracy  or  with  any  regularity,  so  that  the  estate 
would  subsequently  suffer  to  some  extent  in  appearance, 
though  it  is  an  open  question  how  far  this  drawback  is 
worth  considering  in  comparison  with  the  other  advan- 
tages gained.  When  there  is  not  sufficient  timber  to 
make  a  good  burn,  the  brush  is  felled  and  burnt  in  heaps, 
after  which  the  ground  is  carefully  gone  over  for  the 
purpose  of  rooting  up  the  tree  stumps  which  remain, 
but  these  are  sometimes  so  difficult  to  eradicate  that  they 
are  left  to  decay,  care  being  taken,  however,  to  knock 
off  shoots  as  fast  as  they  appear.  It  is,  however,  a  bad 
method  and  one  seldom  followed,  as  the  rotting  stumps 
harbor  vermin  of  all  kinds.  After  burning  the  wood  the 
ashes  should  be  scattered  evenly  over  the  ground  as 
manure  to  enrich  the  soil. 


Immediately  after  the  burn  the  plantation  is  "lined 
and  marked  out "  for  the  reception  of  the  plants,  the  two 
following  methods  being  most  in  vogue  among  old  and 
experienced  planters :  (i)  A  base  line  is  laid  down  as 
nearly  as  possible  straight  up  and  down  the  slope,  and  a 
cross  line  is  set  off  exactly  at  right  angles  to  it ;  on  this 
line  stakes  are  driven  into  the  ground  at  the  distances 
determined  upon  for  the  final  position  of  the  young 
plants,  to  each  stake  a  rope  is  fixed  and  stretched  par- 
allel with  the  base  line,  and  as  straight  as  possible, 
smaller  stakes  being  provided  along  these  lines,  a  rope  is 
then  finally  held  across  them  at  succeeding  stages  of 
equal  width  as  guided  by  measuring  poles  and  the  small 


6o  ROADING   AND   DRAINING. 

stakes,  and  the  small  stakes  are  put  in  where  the  mov- 
able rope  crosses  the  fixed  ones,  each  stake  indicating 
the  site  of  the  plant.  (2)  A  rope  is  furnished  with  bits  of 
scarlet  rag  or  flannel  at  the  distances  decided  on  between 
the  plants  and  stretched  across  the  plot,  stakes  being 
inserted  at  each  -rag,  the  rope  is  then  moved  forward  a 
stage  at  a  time,  gauged  by  measuring  rods.  The  first 
plan  is  the  better,  especially  in  broken  ground,  but  is  more 
laborious,  the  second  being  best  available  in  even  grass- 
land, but  the  stretch  of  the  rope  must  be  estimated  and 
allowed  for,  the  great  object  being  to  have  the  lines  per- 
fectly regular,  and  instead  of  making  any  deviation  where 
stumps  or  other  obstacles  occur,  the  rope  is  laid  over 
them  and  the  corresponding  plant  omitted. 

Efficient  roads  not  only  greatly  facilitate  the  making 
of  a  Coffee  plantation,  but  they  should  be  so  laid  out  as 
to  serve  the  additional  purpose  of  drainage.  A  cart  road 
should  pass  through  the  centre  of  the  plantation  wherever 
it  is  possible  to  avoid  a  steeper  gradient  than  one  in  fif- 
teen, emerging  upon  the  main  highway.  From  this  branch 
roads  should  be  cut  at  right  angles  with  as  easy  gradients 
as  possible,  and  not  more  than  from  one  hundred  to  one 
hundred  and  fifty  feet  apart ;  these  branch  roads  should 
cross  the  lay  of  the  ground  so  as  to  check,  to  the  fullest 
extent,  the  effects  of  waste,  and  a  boundary  path  encir- 
cling the  estate  is  also  useful  for  many  reasons,  but  the 
main  central  road  should  be  set  out  before  pitting  and 
planting.  An  excess  of  road  accommodation  as  regards 
both  the  number  and  width  of  the  paths  is  far  preferable 
to  insufficient  roadway,  despite  the  extra  first  outlay,  and 
if  the  ground  be  such,  it  may  cost  a  great  deal  to  keep 
the  roads  clean  and  free  from  weeds.     This,  however, 


LAYING   OUT   THE   NURSERY.  6 1 

may  be  greatly  lessened  by  plowing  them  up  and  plant- 
ing them  with  an  annual  crop  until  the  land  is  exhausted, 
as  not  only  will  the  roads  be  bounded  by  the  plowing 
but  weeds  will  not  so  readily  grow. 

Nothing  is  more  important  than  the  thorough  drainage 
of  a  Coffee  plantation,  in  order  to  carry  away  the  excess 
of  moisture  during  heavy  rains  without  allowing  the 
surface  soil  to  be  washed  away.  For  this  purpose  con- 
tinuous open  trenches  are  cut  in  parallel  Unes  across  the 
face  of  the  slope  and  at  from  ten  to  fifteen  yards  apart ; 
their  gradient,  however,  should  never  exceed  one  in 
twelve,  one  in  twenty  or  even  one  in  thirty  will  be  still 
better,  their  width  may  be  from  fifteen  to  eighteen  inches 
and  their  depth  not  less  than  one  foot  on  the  lower  side. 
They  will  need  constant  cleaning  out  and  repair,  espe- 
cially after  a  heavy  shower,  and  must  in  all  cases  empty 
into  a  natural  or  artificial  channel  amply  capable  of 
carrying  off  the  water ;  if  furnished  with  breaks  to  catch 
the  suspended  or  detached  soil  so  much  the  better,  as  the 
latter  can  be  collected  and  returned  to  the  plantation  as 
a  dressing. 

IL.A.YI]VO  OUT  THE  IVXJRSERY. 

The  Coffee  plant  is  propagated  in  three  different  ways, 
by  "  Seeds,"  "  Buddings,"  and  "  Cuttings,"  the  two  last 
being  the  most  troublesome  and  objectionable,  there 
being  at  the  same  time  no  branch  of  Coffee' cultivation  of 
more  importance  and  none  so  frequently  mismanaged 
or  neglected  as  that  of  the  production  of  the  plant  in 
the  nursery,  the  greatest  care  and  most  constant  watch- 
ing being  absolutely  necessary  to  the  attainment  of 
success. 

For  this  purpose  should  be  selected  a  patch  of  gently 
sloping  virgin  soil,  warm  and  dry,  soft  in  nature  and  not 


62  LAYING   OUT   THE   NURSERY. 

richer  than  that  to  which  the  plants  are  to  be  subsequently 
transferred,  but  close  to  water,  running  water,  if  possible. 
The  seed-beds  must  be  somewhat  shaded,  but  not  so  as 
to  entirely  exclude  the  sun  nor  so  that  the  shading  plant 
may  gather  rain  and  send  it  in  streams  upon  the  beds ;  it 
must  also  be  cleared  of  all  the  largest  stumps  and 
thoroughly  dug  to  a  depth  of  from  nine  to  twelve  inches 
and  made  very  friable  and  at  the  same  time  slightly  raised 
to  promote  drainage,  and  divided  by  paths  into  narrow 
strips.  A  deep  trench  is  cut  above  the  bed  in  an  oblique 
direction  to  prevent  damage  by  rain  and  wash.  The 
seeds  are  sown  in  rows  six  to  nine  inches  apart  and  about 
two  feet  deep  and  strewn  about  one  inch  apart  in  the 
holes,  after  which  they  are  lightly  covered  with  mould  and 
shaded.  A  cheap  and  efficient  shading  may  be  secured 
by  laying  branches  across  a  light  framework  of  poles. 
All  watering  must  be  done  in  the  morning  or  toward 
sunset.  A  bushel  of  coffee-seed  should  yield  from 
20,000  to  30,000  plants,  the  best  seed  being  what  is 
known  as  "  parchment "  coffee,  picked  when  fully  ripe, 
pulped  by  hand,  unfermented,  unwashed  and  dried  in  the 
shade.  When  the  plants  produce  from  two  to  four  leaves, 
exclusive  of  the  seed-leaves,  they  are  carefully  loosened 
and  transferred,  in  damp,  cloudy  weather,  from  the  seed- 
beds to  the  nurseries  and  placed  there  from  nine  to  twelve 
inches  apart.  Great  care  must  be  taken  meantime  not  to 
double  up  the  tender  tap-roots,  but  if  the  tap-root  is  very 
long,  it  is  best  shortened  by  an  oblique  cut,  which  soon 
shoots  again.  But  when  transplanting  from  seed-beds 
to  nurseries  is  not  practiced  the  plants  are  left  in  the 
seed-beds  until  they  grow  larger.  Many  planters,  how- 
ever, strongly  recommend  the  former  plan,  as  by  check- 
ing the  growth  of  the  plants  the  young  roots  become 
hardened  and  better  abJie,  wnen  finally  planted  out  in 


LAYING    OUT   THE   NURSERY.  63 

the  field,  to  resist  insects,  disease  and  unfavorable  weather. 
A  practical  suggestion  for  preventing  young  seedlings 
from  being  eaten  off  at  the  surface  of  the  ground  by  grubs 
is  to  lightly  wrap  them  with  a  piece  of  paper  about  three 
inches  broad  where  the  stem  joins  the  roots  when  plant- 
ing. The  risk  of  having  the  young  seedlings  burnt  up 
just  after  planting  is  best  guarded  against  by  various 
simple  measures  for  shading  them.  In  about  a  year,  or 
when  the  plants  have  attained  the  height  of  about  eigh- 
teen inches,  they  are  ready  for  transfer  to  the  permanent 
positions  on  the  plantation  which  has  been  meantime 
prepared  for  their  reception. 

In  selecting  a  plot  for  a  nursery  such  a  command  of 
water  as  will  facilitate  the  flooding  of  every  bed  so  as  to 
thoroughly  saturate  the  soil,  will  be  found  indispensable, 
as  it  has  been  found  by  experience  that  it  is  much 
cheaper  to  carry  soil  to  water  than  water  to  soil.  If  a 
good  supply  of  water  cannot  be  conveniently  had  on 
forest  land  by  erecting  a  tank  or  directing  a  stream,  the 
cheapest  plan  will  be  found  to  be  to  transport  the  soil 
already  prepared  and  lay  it  down  to  the  depth  of  a  foot 
to  eighteen  inches  on  any  land  that  has  a  good  command 
of  water.  A  couple  of  boys  can  effectually  irrigate  a 
large  nursery  by  this  means  if  the  water  be  conducted 
to  each  bed,  while  twenty  men  will  be  required  to  carry 
water  as  many  yards  to  a  nursery  of  the  same  size, 
and  even  then  the  beds  will  be  but  one-half  watered. 
But  economy  alone  is  not  the  only  advantage  to  be 
gained  by  this  method  of  flooding  the  beds,  as  this 
process  can  be  carried  on  at  any  time  of  the  day,  while 
watering-pots  cannot  be  used  except  early  in  the  morn- 
ing or  late  in  the  afternoon  without  scorching  the  leaves. 

If  the  nursery  is  formed  on  forest  land  as,  if  possible, 
it  should  be,  the  timber  should   be   felled,  cut  up  and 


64  LAYING   OUT   THE   NURSERY. 

carried  or  rolled  off  the  ground — and  not,  as  is  too  com- 
monly the  case,  burnt  on  it — to  obtain  the  best  results. 
The  former  plan  is  the  most  expensive  but  will  be  found 
to  pay  better  in  the  end,  as  the  surface  mould  is  not 
injured  and  the  friable  nature  of  the  soil  is  preserved 
intact,  whereas  burning  by  consuming  the  vegetable 
matter  on  the  surface  renders  the  soil  more  tenacious 
and  less  suitable  to  the  springing  of  the  seed.  The  beds 
should  never  exceed  five  feet  in  breadth,  and  each  bed 
should  be  sixteen  in  length.  Between  each  row  of 
beds  shallow  channels  should  be  cut  along  which  the 
water  may  be  conducted  to  the  head  of  each  bed,  and  in 
these  channels  during  the  dry  season  water  should  be 
allowed  to  run  continuously,  penetrating  by  this  means 
gradually  into  the  land,  keeping  it  cool  and  moist. 
During  the  extreme  hot  weather  the  longitudinal  division 
between  the  beds  should  consist  of  earth  heaped  up  to 
the  height  of  three  inches,  which  will  not  only  render 
the  flooding  of  the  beds  more  complete,  but  will  also 
prevent  them  drying  up  as  rapidly  as  they  otherwise 
would.  But  during  any  storm  these  divisions  should  be 
removed  and  each  converted  into  a  channel  to  convey 
away  the  superfluous  rain-water. 

As  regards  seed  there  is  very  little  to  be  said,  except 
that  it  should,  as  a  matter  of  importance,  be  selected 
from  the  finest  and  healthiest  trees,  and  consist  only  of  the 
ripest  and  finest  berries  to  be  had.  These  precautions 
are  seldom  attended  to,  however,  as  it  has  never  been 
ascertained  definitely  that  plants  from  carefully  selected 
seeds  are  any  better  than  from  those  grown  at  random. 
Seeds  have  been  sown  from  trees  both  native  and  im- 
ported— on  some  plantations,  of  all  ages  and  in  every 
kind  of  way — pulped  by  hand,  pulped  by  machinery, 
and  not  pulped  at  all,  sometimes  fresh  and  as  frequently 


LAYING   OUT   THE   NURSERY.  6  c; 


six  months  old.  Yet  no  difference  could  be  perceived 
in  the  way  the  seeds  come  up,  or  in  the  plants  produced 
from  them,  but,  as  a  matter  of  convenience,  it  is  much 
preferable  to  separate  the  seeds  from  the  pulp  and  put 
them  down  in  drills.  In  the  drills  the  seed  should  be 
planted  at  least  a  quarter  of  an  inch  apart,  and  between 
each  drill  should  be  left  a  space  of  from  four  to  five 
inches.  The  seed  should  be  planted  in  March  or  April, 
except  where  a  crop  of  plants  has  been  previously  taken 
from  the  soil,  when  the  seed  should  be  put  down  a  month 
earher ;  in  from  fourteen  to  eighteen  months  excellent 
plants  ought  to  be  had,  if  the  soil  consists  of  virgin  land. 
Many  planters  put  down  nursery  seedlings  that  have 
sprung  up  under  the  old  coffee  trees,  but  this  plan  is  not 
to  be  adopted  when  seed  can  be  procured,  and  especially 
where  the  water  is  good. 

An  excellent  soil  for  sowing  the  seed  is  prepared  from 
an  admixture  of  loam  and  leaf-mould,  obtained  from  the 
decayed  leaves  of  trees  and  vegetable  matter,  ground 
fine,  well  sifted  and  then  mixed  with  an  equal  quantity 
of  sand;  while  for  the  successful  propagation  of  the 
young  plants  a  manure  composed  of  finest  soil,  cattle  and 
sheep  dung,  dried,  pulverized,  sifted  and  then  blended 
with  proportionate  quantities  of  a  fine  sandy  loam  has 
been  found  specially  adapted  for  the  purpose.  The  tap- 
roots of  the  young  plants  being  extremely  long  and  ten- 
der, an  abundant  supply  of  the  latter  will  be  found 
requisite,  a  good  depth  being  very  necessary  to  nourish 
and  maintain  them  during  the  early  period  of  growth. 
During  the  hot  weather  the  young  plants  should  be 
shaded,  the  most  approved  method  of  shading  being  to 
place  posts  about  four  feet  high,  with  forked  heads, 
driven  into  the  ground  at  the  corner  of  each  bed,  long 
sticks  being  then  laid  across  them  from  post  to  post, 


66  LAYING   OUT  THE   NURSERY, 

resting  in  the  forks  and  also  laterally,  the  whole  being 
then  covered  with  grass,  reeds  or  other  material.  Some 
months  before  the  plants  are  required  this  shade  should 
be  judiciously  thinned,  and  ultimately  removed  altogether, 
in  order  to  harden  the  plants  gradually  by  exposure  to 
the  sun  and  air.  The  plants,  too,  at  this  period,  should 
be  allowed  to  grow  nearly  to  the  required  size,  stinted  of 
water  and  brought  to  a  stand-still,  in  order  that  the  heads 
of  the  plants  and  the  extremities  of  them  may  solidify, 
for  if  the  plants  be  transferred  to  the  plantation  with 
newly-formed  and  tender  shoots  they  run  great  risk  of 
being  nipped  off  by  the  scorching  rays  of  the  sun,  which 
frequently  makes  its  appearance  when  least  expected  in 
rainy  or  cloudy  weather.  And  when  the  nursery  is 
at  all  exposed  to  dry,  east  winds  the  rows  and  divisions 
between  the  row  of  beds  should  be  thickly  planted  with 
rose  and  fruit  trees,  as  these  not  only  add  to  the  appear- 
ance of  the  nursery,  but  are  also  extremely  valuable  as 
shelters. 

The  next  branch  of  planting  that  demands  special 
attention  is  that  of  transferring  or  transplanting  the 
young  shrubs  or  plants  at  the  best  possible  distance  from 
one  another.  Distances  should  be  altered  in  accordance 
with  the  poorness  or  richness  of  the  soil;  the  richer 
and  stronger  the  land,  the  greater  distance  should  they  be 
planted  apart;  and  the  poorer  the  soil  and  more  exposed 
the  location,  the  closer  and  more  thickly  they  should  be 
grown.  If  roads  are  made  across  the  slopes  and  about 
midv^ay  up  them,  it  may  be  laid  down  as  a  general  rule 
that  the  plants  above  the  roads  should  be  planted  far  closer 
than  those  in  the  richer  soil  below.  Thus,  if  six  feet  by 
six  feet  be  found  a  convenient  distance  in  the  best  land, 
four  and  a  half  feet  by  five  and  a  half  feet  will  be  found 
the  best  distance  in  the  poorer  and  more  exposed  positions. 


DISTANCES   OF   PLANTS,  67 

One  prime  object  must  always  be  borne  in  mind,  i.  e.,  to 
cover  the  soil,  in  order  the  better  to  shade  it,  to  keep  down 
weeds,  and  at  the  same  time  leave  sufficient  room  between 
the  rows  to  allow  of  passing  up  and  down  the  lines  with 
ease,  and  for  the  pickers  to  get  about  without  forcing 
their  way  and  breaking  the  branches.  Bearing  these 
objects  in  mind,  a  planter  should  regulate  his  distances 
carefully  in  accordance  with  his  soil,  situation  and  cli- 
mate. But  on  these  points  a  planter  must,  in  a  great 
m^easure,  rely  upon  his  own  judgment,  and  these  sugges- 
tions are  mainly  intended  to  caution  the  planter  against 
fixing  on  any  arbitrary  distance  as  being  the  best. 

Scarcely  any  two  planters  are  agreed  as  to  the  best 
distances  to  allow  between  the  plants,  the  question  being 
governed  to  a  great  extent  by  the  richness  of  the  soil,  as 
well  as  by  climate  and  situation,  the  object  in  view  must 
be  that  with  the  greatest  convenient  number  of  trees  in  a 
given  space  none  shall  interfere  with  or  incommode  its 
neighbor.  In  cold  or  exposed  situations  where  the  plants 
cannot  obtain  any  great  size,  close  planting  is  necessary, 
the  reverse  being  the  case  where  the  climate  is  warm  and 
humid  and  the  soil  is  productive,  and  consequently  likely 
to  produce  large  bushes.  In  Java  and  the  West  Indies 
the  space  is  often  lo  x  12  feet,  but  other  crops  are  there 
usually  planted  between  the  Coffee  rows,  while  in  India 
and  Ceylon  distances  vary  from  four  feet  each  way  to 
eight  feet,  the  best  being  perhaps  seven  feet  between  the 
rows  and  six  feet  between  the  plants.  The  number  of 
trees  contained  in  an  acre  planted  6^  '/  feet  will  be  about 
1,000;  6-^6,  1,200;  6x5,  1,450;  5x5,  1,750;  5x4, 
2,150;  and  4x5,  2,700.  The  advantages  to  be  gained  in 


68  HOLING   AND   PITTING. 

wide  planting  are  that  field  labor  is  faciliated  and  the 
shrubs  grow  larger,  the  disadvantage  being  that  more 
room  is  left  for  weeds. 

Around  or  beside  each  stake  a  hole  is  next  dug,  its 
size  depending  much  upon  the  kind  of  soil ;  in  stiff  or 
poor  land  two  feet  each  way  is  not  too  large,  but  in  good 
light  ground  eighteen  inches  will  suffice,  but  they  had 
better  be  too  deep  than  not  deep  enough.  The  imple- 
ment commonly  used  for  this  purpose  is  a  kind  of  grub- 
bing-hoe  or  spade-bar.  The  earth  thrown  out  is  usually 
left  to  mellow  until  just  before  planting,  after  which  the 
hole  is  filled  in  with  the  best  of  the  mould,  which  must 
have  been  previously  carefully  freed  from  stones,  roots 
and  other  extraneous  matter,  and  mixed  with  a  little 
manure.  The  filling-in  must  be  done  very  lightly  and 
the  loose  earth  should  rise  in  a  heap  above  the  hole. 
This  operation  is  best  performed  while  the  ground  is 
moist,  but  it  is  also  a  good  plan  to  break  down  the  sides 
somewhat,  more  especially  if  they  are  hardened. 

When  the  holes  have  been  duly  prepared  the  young 
plants  are  removed  from  the  nursery  with  the  same  care 
as  they  are  transplanted  to  the  nursery  from  the  seed- 
beds ;  for  taking  up  the  young  plants  an  ordinary  prong  is 
much  superior  to  the  spade-bar,  but  hand-pulling  must 
be  rigidly  guarded  against.  The  fibrous  roots  of  each 
plant  as  taken  up  are  carefully  pruned  off  to  about  four 
inches  so  that  they  may  not  be  doubled  up  in  the  plant- 
ing, the  tap-root  being  also  shortened  to  about  nine 
inches  by  a  clean  sloping  cut  for  the  same  reason,  and  a 
ball  of  earth  should  surround  the  roots  and  if  the  plants 


PLANTING  AND  PICKING.  69 

are  exposed  to  the  air  for  more  than  a  few  minutes,  the 
roots  should  be  covered  with  wet  moss  or  some  other 
damp  material.  A  dull,  cloudy  day  should  be  chosen 
for  this  operation  whenever  possible,  as  in  bright  sunshine 
the  plants  would  be  all  burnt  up.  The  plants  are  carried 
in  batches  in  wicker  trays  or  baskets  to  the  plantation 
and  are  placed  in  the  ready  prepared  holes  by  hand,  great 
care  being  taken  that  no  roots  are  doubled  up,  that  the 
plants  are  upright  and  that  they  are  placed  no  deeper  in 
the  ground  than  they  were  before,  and  in  treading  the 
earth  down  around  the  plant  every  precaution  is  neces- 
sary to  prevent  leaving  holes  for  the  accumulation  of 
water  around  the  roots.  The  surface  must  also  be  made 
firm  and  level  as  possible,  but  on  a  steep  slope  the  outer 
edge  may  be  slightly  higher  than  the  inner,  to  check  the 
effect  of  any  wash  that  may  occur,  but  in  subsequent 
weeding  it  will  be  necessary  to  guard  against  exposing 
the  lateral  roots.  There  is  some  diversity  of  opinion  as 
to  the  size  and  age  most  suitable  for  putting  out  nursery 
plants,  but  when  dull,  rainy  weather  can  be  depended  on 
for  some  little  time,  nursery  plants  of  the  second  year 
are  the  most  satisfactory,  plants  of  one  season  only  being 
too  tender  for  the  operation,  but  under  ordinary  condi- 
tions and  with  due  care  no  serious  loss  of  plants  should 
be  incurred  in  this  way.  A  novel  plan,  one  which  may 
be  advantageously  adopted  on  small  plantations,  is  the 
one  resembling  the  method  of  planting  Cinchona.  A 
number  of  calabashes  are  deprived  of  their  small  end 
and  emptied  of  their  contents,  into  these  the  seedlings 
are  placed  and  gradually  exposed  to  the  sun  as  they 
grow  and  finally  planted  in  the  calabashes  ;  the  latter  soon 
rot  and  form  manure  for  the  plants.  A  new  plan  that 
has  been  much  followed  is  the  substitution  of  "stumps" 
for  nursery  plants — that  is,  plants  that  have  been  in  the 


70  DIBBLING  AND   STAKING. 

nursery  for  about  three  years  are  dug  up  and  pruned 
back  leaving  only  about  six  to  eight  inches  of  stem ;  they 
are  hardier  and  safer  in  a  general  way  than  whole  plants, 
more  especially  in  uncertain  weather,  as  they  will  strike 
readily,  even  without  rainfall  for  some  little  time  after 
being  put  in,  provided  the  ground  has  become  sufficiently 
moist  to  prevent  their  being  burnt  up,  but  they  cannot  be 
used  in  districts  where  a  long  period  of  drought  may  be 
expected  to  succeed  to  a  wet  season.  The  planting  of 
stumps  is  performed  in  the  usual  way,  the  plants  send  up 
several  shoots  from  the  parent  stem  of  these,  the  finest 
are  retained  to  form  the  future  tree  and  the  rest  are 
pulled  off  carefully.  The  shoot  that  is  left  grows  rapidly, 
but  from  the  way  it  springs  from  the  stem  it  is  liable  to 
be  accidentally  broken  off  either  by  a  high  wind  or  by 
the  weeders.  The  crookedness  of  the  stump  from  native- 
grown  seed  renders  them  very  inferior ;  the  best  size  for 
stumps  is  the  thickness  of  a  common  pencil. 

When  the  land  is  very  rich  and  friable  holing  may  be 
replaced  by  the  less  expensive  plan  known  as  "  dibbling," 
which  is  performed  in  two  ways  :  (i)  by  the  aid  of  the 
spade-bar  is  made  a  sufficiently  deep  hole  into  which  the 
plant  is  dropped,  and  secured  by  treading  the  earth  lightly 
around ;  (2)  a  patch  of  ground  measuring  about  one 
foot  each  way  is  thoroughly  loosened  without  the  soil 
being  taken  out,  in  the  disturbed  earth  a  hole  is  made 
with  the  hand,  the  plant  is  then  inserted  and  trodden 
around  as  before;  the  latter  method  is  preferable. 
Dibbling  is  only  practicable  in  exceptionable  cases,  and 
is,  moreover,  open  to  objection,  as  a  hole  is  often  left  in 
which  water  may  accumulate  and  rot  the  plant,  and  the 
roots  are  more  liable  to  injury  than  in  ordinary  planting, 


SUPPLYING    VACANCIES.  7 1 

but,  on  the  other  hand,  much  labor  is  saved.  When 
the  plants  are  exposed  to  the  wind  they  should  be 
provided  with  supports  as  soon  as  they  are  ten  to  twelve 
inches  high,  and  present  a  resisting  surface.  For  the 
first  season's  plants  lining  pegs  may  be  used,  but  larger 
plants  will  need  strong,  inflexible  stakes,  three  to  four  feet 
long,  entering  the  ground  on  the  windward  side  at  about 
six  inches  distant  from  the  plant,  and  at  such  an  angle  as  to 
meet  the  stem  at  about  its  middle.  The  plant  is  attached 
to  the  stake  by  a  broad  loop  of  some  vegetable  fibre, 
firmly  tied  to  the  stake  but  loose  around  the  stem  of  the 
plant.  If  the  plants  have  already  been  worked  round  by 
the  wind  they  will  need  earthing  up  to  five  or  six  inches 
as  well.  The  ties  should  be  brushed  with  coal-tar,  as  a 
protection  against  theft,  insects  and  decay. 

Every  precaution  should  be  taken  to  guard  against 
failures,  as  "supplies,"  as  they  are  called,  will  seldom,  if 
ever,  (3o  as  well  as  young  plants  put  into  virgin  soil,  but 
in  new  land  failures  can  be  entirely  guarded  against  by 
care,  and  their  number  may  subsequently  be  limited 
by  keeping  the  ground  free  from  weeds,  and  by  good 
draining,  manuring  and  pruning.  A  certain  number  of 
vacancies,  however,  will  occur  from  time  to  time.  And 
they  must  be  filled  up  in  the  following  manner :  The 
original  pit  having  been  re-emptied  should  be  enlarged 
an  inch  or  two  all  around,  but  especially  in  depth,  and 
this  should  be  done  in  dry  weather,  the  pit  being  left 
open  for  some  time,  and  only  filled  in  when  the  time  for 
planting  has  arrived,  but  in  most  cases  it  will  be  desir- 
able to  refill  the  pit  with  the  soil  which  has  been  taken 
out  of  it.  Where  the  vacancy  is  in  the  midst  of  old 
trees  a  large  pit  is  necessary  to  protect  the  new  plant 


72  CATCH-CROPS. 


from  being  interfered  with  by  these  roots,  and  it  will  be 
also  well  to  isolate  the  young  plant  by  surrounding  it 
with  a  ring  trench,  six  to  eight  inches  wide  and  one  foot 
deep.  It  is  also  desirable  to  put  a  basketful  or  so  of  new 
soil  from  the  first  into  the  pit  near  the  top,  but  where 
this  cannot  be  managed  a  few  handfuls  of  manure  should 
be  mixed  with  surface  mould,  for  only  strong,  healthy 
plants  must  be  used  for  this  purpose.  Stumps  are,  by 
some  planters,  considered  more  suitable  than  nursery 
plants  for  supplying  vacancies,  as,  being  hardier,  they 
throw  out  from  three  to  four  "  suckers,"  the  best  of 
which  are  selected  when  they  have  attained  a  height  of 
from  six  to  nine  inches,  the  others  being  carefully  pulled 
off.  Well-formed  nursery  plants,  with  three  or  four  pairs 
of  primaries  and  about  twelve  to  fifteen  inches  high,  put 
in  just  as  they  come  from  the  beds  with  a  good  ball 
around  the  roots,  are  to  be  preferred  when  steady  wet 
weather  can  be  calculated  on  for  some  time,  but  in  any 
case  supplies  ought  to  be  put  in  early  in  the  wet  season, 
so  as  to  give  them  every  advantage ;  they  should  also  be 
marked  by  a  tall  stake,  and  should  be  allowed  to  bear  a 
maiden  crop  before  being  topped  or  pruned. 

Much  has  been  said  for  and  against  the  growing  of 
other  crops  on  the  plantation  among  the  Coffee  shrubs. 
In  Java  and  other  Coffee-growing  countries  of  the  East 
it  is  grown  between  the  rows.  In  Ceylon  two  catch- 
crops  were  long  in  vogue,  but  they  appear  now  to  have 
gone  out  of  fashion,  it  being  claimed  that  they  exhausted 
the  soil  and  produced  too  much  there.  While  in  Mexico, 
the  West  Indies,  Central  and  South  America,  the  culture 
of  plantains,  yams,   cocoa  and  bananas  was  carried  to 


CATCH-CROPS.  7J 


such  an  extreme  on  many  plantations  that  the  Coffee 
became,  in  fact,  of  only  secondary  importance,  or  was 
even  entirely  killed  out.  There  is  nothing,  however,  to 
object  to  in  the  simultaneous  cultivation  of  several 
crops,  so  long  as  each  has  proper  space  and  sufficient 
manure,  and  the  plants  are  not  antagonistic  to  each 
other,  as  many  claim,  and  the  failure  of  one  crop  may 
be  compensated  for  by  the  success  of  the  other.  Rice 
and  tobacco  have  been  found  to  yield  good  returns  as 
catch-crops,  but  they  possess  a  disadvantage,  in  not 
affording  any  shade  to  the  young  Coffee  plants.  Cocoa, 
yams,  bananas  and  plantains  are  perhaps  even  less 
advisable,  and  similar  attempts  with  cotton  have  proved 
altogether  failures,  while  maize,  on  the  other  hand,  is 
highly  recommended  from  experiences  in  Brazil  and 
other  countries.  When  adopted,  it  should  be  planted 
thinly  in  three  rows,  eighteen  inches  apart  between  the 
Coffee  rows,  and  two  plants  apart  in  the  Coffee  rows 
between  the  Coffee  plants.  The  seed  should  be  sown 
immediately  after  the  Coffee  is  planted.  It  grows  very 
quickly  and  should  early  be  thinned  out  to  eighteen 
inches  apart  in  the  rows,  and  will  soon  be  high  enough 
to  completely  shelter  and  partially  shade  the  Coffee, 
which  will  grow  all  the  faster  in  consequence,  the  latter 
being  also  greatly  benefitted  by  the  extra  working  of 
the  ground.  In  the  fall  a  dressing  of  manure — the  same 
manure  will  suit  both  Coffee  and  maize — is  applied  and 
the  ground  plowed  or  deeply  hoed,  preferably  the 
former.  The  crops  may  also  be  repeated  the  following 
spring,  reducing  it,  however,  to  two  rows  and  one 
Coffee  plant  and  repeating  the  manuring  and  plowing  or 
hoeing,  but  this  time  the  choice  between  the  plow  and 
hoe  must  be  governed  by  the  size  of  the  Coffee  shrubs ; 
if  too  high,  the  latter  is  best. 


74  MANURES   AND   MANURING. 


It  is  commonly  said  that  Coffee  is  an  unusually  ex- 
haustive crop,  but  the  exhaustion  of  the  soil  consequent 
upon  Coffee  culture  is  only  the  result  of  the  peculiar  con- 
ditions under  which  the  industry  is  prosecuted  rather 
than  of  the  nature  of  the  plant  itself.  Better  than  any 
amount  of  artificial  manuring  is  the  retention  of  the 
naturally  rich  surface  soil  by  the  effective  prevention  of 
wash  as  a  secondary  adjunct;  however,  judicious  manur- 
ing will  prove  highly  beneficial,  and  even  necessary  in 
almost  all  cases  after  the  first  or  two.  But  it  is  impos- 
sible to  lay  down  any  hard  and  fast  rule  for  manuring,  the 
most  that  can  be  done  is  to  indicate  the  essential  elements 
of  coffee  soils,  the  best  artificial  substitutes  and  the  best 
methods  of  applying  these  substitutes.  The  best  coffee 
soils  appear  to  contain  about  15  per  cent,  of  combined 
iron  and  alumnia,  the  iron,  if  as  red  oxide  may  amount  to 
about  20  or  even  30  per  cent,  being  a  good  absorbent  of 
fertilizing  constituents,  but  the  alumnia  should  not 
exceed  10  per  cent.  Lime  is  also  an  essential,  which 
must  be  supplied,  if  wanting  in  the  soil;  this  is  too  often 
overlooked  in  the  anxiety  to  furnish  stimulants.  The 
percentage  of  organic  matter  may  be  too  high,  it  should 
represent  only  about  0.2  to  0.3  per  cent,  of  nitrogen,  so 
that  the  best  average  manure  for  supplying  nitrogen  and 
potash  is  well-rotted  dung,  but  its  frequent  application 
should  be  accompanied  by  a  little  lime  unless  the  soil  is 
already  very  rich  in  that  constituent,  for,  without  the 
presence  of  lime,  the  shrubs  will  not  receive  the  full  bene- 
fit of  the  nitrogenous  principles,  but  its  use  in  a  tropical 
climate  must  be  governed  by  caution.  Thoroughly  fer- 
mented coffee  pulp  is  also  a  useful  manure,  but  it  is  only 
half  as  valuable  as  dung  and  costs   more  to   apply,  it 


MANURES   AND    MANURING.  75 

should  be  kept  covered  as  it  is  produced,  and  is  best 
mixed  with  fermented  dung,  failing  which  it  should  be 
well-limed,  while  alone  is  of  small  benefit,  but  forms  a 
good  vehicle  for  concentrated  fertilizers.  Almost  all 
coffee  soils  requires  a  constant  renewal  of  phosphoric 
acid  and  lime,  which  are  not  supplied  by  the  dung  alone ; 
these  constituents  are  best  furnished  in  the  form  of  bones 
steamed  and  ground  or  by  concentrated  superphosphate 
containing  from  40  to  45  per  cent,  while  phosphate  of 
lime.  Nitrogenous  manures  alone  are  too  stimulating 
and  help  only  to  produce  premature  exhaustion,  therefore 
bones  may  with  great  advantage  be  added  to  the  dung. 
Composts  of  pulp  and  cake  are  useful  nitrogenous  man- 
ures, but  they  must  be  accompanied  by  phosphates  and 
lime.  Potash  seldom  requires  to  be  directly  applied,  but 
is  very  advantageous  after  attacks  of  leaf-disease,  while 
magnesia  seems  to  be  a  necessary  constituent  of  all  good 
coffee  soils  in  the  proportion  of  0.5  to  2  per  cent.,  but 
when  wanting  dolomite  may  be  applied  in  its  place. 
The  great  object  of  manuring  is  to  apply  all  the  constitu- 
ents required  and  in  a  soluble  form,  but  for  coffee  the 
nitrogen  is  better  applied  in  an  insoluble  form — as  in 
dung,  cake  and  fish  manure — than  in  a  soluble  form — as 
in  guano,  nitrate  of  soda  or  sulphate  of  ammonia.  Phos- 
phates are  best  supplied  in  bones,  when  a  lasting  effect 
is  required,  but  high-grade  superphosphates  are  always 
preferable  for  immediate  effect  as  in  cases  of  leaf-disease. 
Again  in  tropical  countries,  all  manures  are  best  applied 
frequently  and  in  small  quantities.  Regular  manuring 
after  each  crop  would  doubtless  be  most  generally 
economical  and  advantageous,  the  quantity  depending  in 
local  conditions,  but  should  always  be  extra  liberal  after  a 
full  harvest.  Artificial  manures  should  be  put  out  only 
in  damp  weather,  dung  may  be  applied  at  almost  any  time. 


76  MANTTRES   AND   MANURING. 

while  lime  must  never  be  in  a  caustic  state ;  when  applied 
its  best  forms  are  gas-lime  and  gypsum. 

The  manure  most  freely  applied  and  most  relied  on  in 
countries  where  it  is  available,  is  cattle  dung,  and  with 
the  view  of  keeping  up  a  regular  supply  of  it,  many 
estates  keep  a  considerable  stock  of  cattle  for  this  pur- 
pose alone,  and  which  are,  in  many  instances,  stall-fed 
with  grass  and  oil-cake.  But  in  many  of  the  coffee-grow- 
ing countries  this  form,  owing  to  a  fatal  obstacle  in  climate 
is  not  obtainable,  for  while,  in  some  countries,  grass  can 
be  readily  grown  all  the  year  round,  in  others  it  is  found 
impossible  to  provide  any  quantity  of  grass  for  even  any 
part  of  the  year,  and  cattle  have  to  be  grazed  all  day  to 
support  them  at  all.  Besides  the  fatal  objections  to  the 
foregoing  kind  of  manure,  there  are  others  which  serve  to 
show  that  it  is  only  under  very  favorable  circumstances  that 
cattle  manure  could  be  used  with  advantage.  The  first 
is  the  bulky  nature  of  the  manure  and  the  consequent 
cost  and  labor  of  application,  and  the  second,  and  by  no 
means  the  least,  is  the  great  risk  run  of  losing  stock  by 
disease.  The  latter  consideration  should  be  sufficient  to 
deter  the  planter  from  depending  on  a  manurial  source 
which  is  liable  to  be  suddenly  cut  off  at  any  moment 

Another  form  of  manure  in  use  among  planters  is  bone 
manure,  the  value  of  which  for  all  crops  and  in  all 
countries,  combined  with  its  extreme  portability  and 
cheapness  of  application,  renders  it  by  far  the  most  im- 
portant of  fertilizers  for  coffee.  This  form,  mixed  with 
the  pulp  of  the  coffee  is  a  popular  one  on  many  planta- 
tions. The  pulp  being  moist  prevents  the  bone  dust 
from  being  blown  away,  and  when  heaped  up  before 
using,  the  heat  that  is  thereby  generated  seems  to  exercise 
a  considerable  effect  upon  the  bone  dust.  Still  another 
excellent  manure  is  made  from  alternate  layers  of  farm 


MANURES   AND   MANURING.  77 

yard  manure  and  bone  dust,  making  a  splendid  compost. 
The  former  is  generally  composed  of  horse,  cattle  and 
sheep  manure,  wood  ashes  and  general  sweepings. 
The  best  results  have  been  obtained  from  this  latter 
form,  and  if  sufficient  quantities  of  the  first  substance 
could  always  be  obtainable,  readily  and  cheaply,  it  is 
without  exception,  the  best  yet  discovered  for  coffee 
manure.  Bone  dust,  when  used  alone  fails,  though 
valuable  as  a  berry  producer,  to  give  that  dark  green 
leaf  and  growth  of  strong  young  wood  which  is 
absolutely  necessary  to  produce  abundantly. 

The  manner  of  applying  manure  is  not  the  same  in 
all  countries  or  cases  and  no  manure  should  be  put  more 
than  one  foot  below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  nor  less 
than  eighteen  inches  from  the  stem  of  the  coffee  bush. 
On  flat  land,  where  there  is  no  danger  of  wash,  the 
manure  may  be  spread  over  the  surface  and  hoed  into  a 
depth  of  from  nine  to  twelve  inches,  or,  better  still,  a 
square  hole  may  be  cut  between  each  four  shrubs  and  the 
manure  buried  in  it ;  while  on  slopes  it  is  customary  to  dig 
a  hole  above  each  bush.  For  bulky  manures  it  may  be 
two  feet  long  by  one  and  a  half  feet  wide  and  one  foot  deep, 
but  for  concentrated  manures  these  dimensions  must  be 
considerably  reduced.  The  holes  should  be  filled  up  with 
any  prunings  of  other  vegetable  matter  at  hand  and  then 
covered  down  firmly  with  the  loose  top-soil  and  the  new 
earth  from  the  hole  should  be  spread  around  the  stem  of 
the  neighboring  tree  to  protect  its  roots.  Ordinary  man- 
uring is  sometimes  supplemented  by  other  methods  of 
improving  the  soil,  one  of  which  is  to  loosen  it  by  driv- 
ing a  long  bar  or  a  manure-fork  deeply  into  the  ground 
and  then  prying  up  the  earth  without  turning  it  over. 
Another  operation  is  that  known  as  "mulching"  or 
"  ground  thatching,"  which  consists  in  simply  covering 


78  WEEDING   AND   PRUNING. 

the  ground  under  the  bushes  with  a  layer  of  long,  hard 
grass  six  to  nine  inches  thick,  the  effect  of  which  in  cold, 
wet  soils  is  to  keep  the  ground  warm  and  throw  off 
excessive  moisture,  while  in  hot,  dry  situations  it  is 
equally  useful  to  retain  moisture.  But  in  any  case  weeds 
are  kept  down  and  wash  is  quite  prevented,  and  when 
rotten  the  grass  may  be  hoed  or  dug  in  as  manure ;  this 
thatching  has  been  found  a  perfect  cure  for  black  bug.  A 
third  operation,  termed  "trenching"  or  "water  hoeing," 
is  where  trenches  are  made  across  the  slope,  which  may  be 
either  opened  or  closed.  In  the  former  case  holes  three  to 
four  feet  long,  twelve  to  fifteen  inches  broad  and  from  fifteen 
to  eighteen  inches  deep  are  cut  between  each  four  trees,  the 
soil  taken  from  them  is  spread  over  the  roots  of  the  trees, 
while  the  holes  are  left  open  to  act  as  catch  drains  and 
receptacles  for  wash,  weeds,  prunings  and  other  vegetable 
refuse,  being  emptied  twice  a  year  and  their  contents 
spread  around  the  roots  of  the  shrubs.  Closed  trenches 
are  ditches  cut  across  the  entire  length  of  the  coffee  rows 
two  feet  wide  and  deep  and  filled  with  any  vegetable  rub- 
bish at  hand,  they  are  then  covered  with  earth  and  well 
trodden  down,  while  the  remaining  soil  is  spread  under 
the  trees.  The  benefit  of  trenching  is  greatest  in  stiff 
soils.  The  refuse  matter  in  the  trenches  should  be  well 
limed  in  all  cases,  in  order  to  kill  the  grubs  and  other 
vermin  for  which  it  will  otherwise  form  a  nursery. 

By  "  weeding,"  on  a  Coffee  plantation,  is  meant  the 
eradication  of  every  plajii  which,  is  not  being  intentionally 
cultivated.  The  operation  is  performed  in  different  ways, 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil.  On  Hght  soils  and 
sloping  situations  hand-weeding  is  much  the  best.  The 
laborer  is  provided  with  a  pointed  stick  to  help  in  getting 


V/EEDING   AND    PRUNING.  79 


ap  obstinate  roots,  and  carries  at  his  waist  a  small  bag, 
into  which  the  weeds  are  at  once  thrust,  and  afterwards 
turned  out  of  the  bags  into  pits  dug  at  convenient  inter- 
vals, or  are  heaped  up  on  the  roads  and  finally  buried  or 
burned,  the  latter  being  the  surer  method  of  effectually- 
destroying  them.  By  weeding  early  and  repeating  the 
operation  as  often  as  necessary,  the  ground  may  be  kept 
clean  by  hand  alone.  But  when  hand-weeding  will  not 
suffice,  recourse  must  be  had  to  "  scraping  "  the  ground, 
which  is,  however,  attended  with  a  serious  drawback — the 
first  inch  or  more  of  the  best  surface-mould  is  removed, 
at  the  same  time  thus  robbing  the  plants  of  nourishment 
and  exposing  the  earth  to  the  full  effects  of  the  wash. 
On  stiff  clay  soils,  on  level  plantations  and  in  damp,  cool 
climates  on  the  other  hand,  hoeing  is  not  only  necessary 
for  the  perfect  eradication  of  the  weeds,  but  is  of  itself 
exceedingly  beneficial  to  the  soil,  and  except  during  the 
dry  season  should  be  regularly  done,  whether  weeds  are 
present  or  not.  When  scraping  or  hoeing  it  is  imperative 
that  the  operation  should  be  conducted  from  the  outside 
towards  the  trees,  so  that  the  roots  may  be  kept  well 
covered  and  the  wash  easily  escape  into  the  drains. 

The  coffee  tree,  if  allowed  to  grow  to  its  natural  height, 
wili  commonly  be  found  to  measure  from  twelve  to 
fifteen  feet.  But  the  most  experienced  planters  reduce 
their  shrubs  to  at  the  most  four  and  a  half  feet,  and 
sometimes  as  little  as  three  feet,  and  in  windy  and  exposed 
situations  two  and  a  half  feet  in  some  countries  have  been 
adopted  as  the  best  height.  And  here,  as  in  distance, 
the  planter  should  be  guided  by  the  nature  of  the  soil 
and  partly  by  the  aspect  as  regards  wind.  In  thoroughly 
sheltered  situations  and  in  the  finest  land  a  tree  may  be 
allowed  four  and  a  half  to  five  feet  with  advantage,  but 
m  all  medium  situations,  as  regards  soil  and  exposure. 


80  WEEDING    AND    PRUNING. 

four  feet  should  be  the  limit,  or  even  a  few  inches  less;  in 
very  poor  and  much  exposed  situations  three  feet  will  be 
found  ample  for  all  purposes.  The  height  being  deter- 
mined on,  the  next  point  is  to  consider  the  best  time  for 
topping  or  pruning  them.  By  many  planters  the  safest 
and  most  sensible  time  for  performing  this  operation  is 
considered  to  be  when  the  tree  has  exceeded  the  height 
it  is  intended  to  keep  it  at,  and  when  the  bark  has  become 
brown  and  fully  developed.  Pruning  should,  if  possible, 
be  all  completed  before  blossoming  season,  except  when 
it  is  confined  to  the  removal  of  plainly  superfluous  wood 
that  is  past  bearing,  or  has,  perhaps,  only  a  berry  or  two 
on  it,  when  pruning  may  be  continued  without  injury  or 
inconvenience  until  up  to  the  commencement  of  May. 
When  all  these  are  removed  it  will  generally  be  found 
that  sufficient  has  been  done ;  but  on  very  luxuriant  trees 
the  shoots  growing  in  the  right  direction  will  be  still  too 
numerous,  and  will  require  further  thinning  so  as  to 
reduce  the  number  to  two  shoots  at  every  point  of  the 
branch.  If  this  process  of  handling  be  fully  and  regularly 
attended  to  there  will  be  very  little  and  very  simple  work 
for  the  knife  to  do,  and  the  pruner  will  merely  have  to 
remove  the  very  driest  and  oldest  secondaries  and  shorten 
back  such  primaries  as  may  be  too  long  and  whippy. 

In  the  old  neglected  trees  the  process  is  more  difficult, 
but  may,  with  a  little  patience,  be  got  into  good  order 
easy  and  cheaply.  The  first  thing  to  be  done  with  them 
is  to  cut  out  all  secondary  and  tertiary  branches  that  are 
past  bearing,  and  to  clear  out  the  centre  of  the  head  oi 
the  trees.  The  removal  of  this  superfluous  wood  will  be 
followed  by  a  sufficiently  rapid  growth  of  young  wood 
which  should  be  carefully  handled,  and  after  the  next 
crop  a  fair  proportion  of  cross  branches  may  be  cut  out, 
but  only  to  a  slight  extent,  so  as  not  to  diminish  the 


^ 


n 


WEEDING   AND    PRUNING.  8l 

crop  prospect.  Others,  again,  contending  that  the  proper 
time  is  immediately  before  or  after  the  first  blossoming 
season.  In  the  former  case  it  is  claimed  that  topping 
before  the  blossoming  season  has  a  tendency  to  turn  out 
a  heavy  crop  on  the  pruning  branches,  while  in  the  latter 
instance  other  planters  boldly  sacrifice  the  heavy  yield 
in  order  to  add  to  the  permanent  strength  of  the  tree, 
invariably  refraining  from  topping  the  plant  until  just 
after  the  blossoming  period.  By  this  latter  method 
several  pairs  of  branches,  with  their  blossoms,  are  cut 
off  and  lost,  but  the  sacrifice  will  be  amply  repaid  by  the 
increased  strength  added  to  the  young  tree,  and  also  by 
the  advantage  of  having  a  small  crop  on  the  primary 
branches  below. 

The  style  of  pruning  first  required  by  Coffee  bushes 
is  that  known  as  "  topping,"  the  age  and  height  at  which 
this  operation  is  performed  depending  in  a  great  measure 
upon  local  circumstances,  this  question  also  being  a  much- 
debated  one.  The  object  of  "  topping,"  or  removing  the 
top  of  the  bush,  is  to  restrain  its  upward  growth  within 
convenient  limits,  and,  as  a  natural  consequence,  to 
strengthen  and  concentrate  its  lateral  growth.  In  some 
countries  of  the  East  topping  is  commenced  at  the  age 
of  twelve  to  eighteen  months,  the  maximum  ordinary 
height  being  four  feet,  which  is  sometimes  reduced  to  two 
feet,  the  operation  being  postponed  until  the  shrubs  have 
borne  their  maiden  crop,  even  though  extra  staking  is 
required  to  withstand  the  wind ;  the  best  plan  being  to 
remove  the  two  primaries  at  the  required  height  by  a 
sloping  outward  cut  close  to  the  stem,  and  then  to  remove 
the  top  by  an  oblique  cut  so  that  the  stumps  resemble  a 
cross,  and  a  firm,  natural  knot  remains  to  guard  against 
the  stem  splitting  down.  But  some  planters  contend 
that  the  plants  should  be  topped  as  soon  as  they  have 


8'>,  WEEDING   AND   PRUNING. 

reached  the  required  height,  when  the  soft  wood  is  easily 
severed  by  a  pinch  between  the  finger  and  thumb,  as  in 
the  case  of  tea.  In  other  countries  the  shrubs  are  topped 
either  at  their  full  height — four  and  one-half  to  five  feet — 
or  at  three  feet,  allowing  a  "  sucker  "  to  grow  up  on  the 
weather  side,  the  latter  plan  being  preferred.  There  is 
much  advantage  gained  in  limiting  the  height  to  five  feet, 
as  not  only  is  the  crop  gathered  more  easily,  and  without 
damage  to  the  tree,  but  it  is  actually  heavier,  and  the 
shrubs  are  more  readily  made  to  cover  the  ground.  The 
first  result  of  "topping"  is  to  induce  the  growth  of  a 
number  of  shoots,  the  removal  of  which  is  termed 
"handling"  or  "searching."  The  first  to  appear  are 
vertical  "  suckers  "  or  "  gormandizers,"  from  under  the 
primary  boughs ;  these  are  immediately  rubbed  off  with- 
out injuring  the  bark.  From  the  primaries  spring 
secondary  branches  in  pairs,  and  at  very  short  intervals. 
AD  such  appearing  within  six  inches  of  the  stem  are 
removed  at  once,  so  that  a  passage  of  at  least  a  foot  high 
is  left  in  the  centre  of  the  tree  for  the  admission  of  the 
air  and  sun.  The  object  of  pruning  is  to  divert  the 
energies  of  the  tree  from  forming  wood,  and  to  concen- 
trate them  upon  forming  fruit.  The  fruit  of  the  Coffee 
tree  is  borne  by  young  wood,  and  as  the  secondaries  are 
reproduced  when  they  are  removed,  they  are  cut  off  as 
soon  as  they  have  borne.  A  constant  succession  of  young 
wood  is  thus  secured.  In  order  that  this  may  be  regular, 
and  to  avoid  weakening  the  shrub,  the  secondaries  that 
grow  outside  of  the  foot  space  are  left  on  alternate  sides 
of  the  primary,  their  opposites  being  removed  each  year 
in  turn ;  thus  one  is  growing  while  the  other  is  bearing. 
The  one  point  in  view  must  be  the  equal  development  of 
the  tree  and  the  yearly  growth  of  as  much  as  it  will  bear, 
but  no  more.     Branches  must  not  be  allowed  to  grow 


ENEMIES   AND    REMEDIES. 


into  or  cross  each  other,  and  if  two  or  more  secondaries 
spring  from  one  spot  the  strongest  only  must  be  retained ; 
where  a  gap  occurs  tertiaries  may  be  trained  to  free  it  in 
the  same  way.  When  practicable,  the  bushes  should  be 
handled  twice  before  the  crop,  and  the  pruning  should  be 
commenced  immediately  after  the  crop  and  finished  before 
the  blossom  comes  out,  but  should  this  be  impossible,  it 
must  be  suspended  during  the  three  or  four  days  of  blos- 
som-time, and  then  be  carried  to  completion.  When  it  is 
evident  that  the  crop  on  a  tree  will  exhaust  it  if  allowed 
to  mature,  a  portion  of  it  must  be  sacrificed  by  pruning. 
The  loss  thus  occasioned  is  more  apparent  than  real,  as 
in  every  prolific  season  much  fruit  is  wasted  for  lack  of 
labor,  and  the  trees  are  unreasonably  overtaxed  and  bear 
poorly  for  some  time  afterwards.  Everything  should  be 
done  to  insure  regular  and  even  crops;  the  cuttings 
should  be  trenched  in  among  the  plants  as  m^anure,  and 
no  branch  should  be  allowed  to  bear  more  than  two  or 
three  crops  before  removal.  Regular  and  systematic 
pruning  is  one  of  the  first  essentials  to  successful  and 
profitable  Coffee  culture.  Where  Coffee  plantations  have 
been  neglected  on  this  score  they  must  be  very  gradually 
reduced  to  proper  condition  by  sawing  out  the  branches 
and  opening  up  the  centre  of  the  trees  in  tlie  first  year, 
and  trimming  out  about  half  the  remaining  wood  in  the 
second  year. 

The  profits  derived  from  healthy  Coffee  growing  are 
so  large  that  were  it  not  for  the  many  enemies  which 
hamper  the  planter's  struggles  and  stultify  his  best  efforts, 
his  occupation  would  be  one  of  the  most  profitable  in  the 
world.  But  as  it  is  he  has  to  contend  with  numerous 
foes,  and  the  more  lowly  and  minute  forms  have  proved 


84  ENEMIES   AND    REMEDIES. 

themselves  the  most  difficult  to  combat  in  these  long 
struggles  which  have  been  waged  since  Coffee  cultivation 
first  rose  to  its  present  importance  in  the  various  countries 
in  which  it  is  grown.  From  the  mammalian  kingdom  he 
has  not  much  to  fear  or  is  generally  able  to  devise  effi- 
cient remedies  against  their  ravages.  But  besides  the 
peculiar  conditions  of  climate,  aspect,  drainage,  shade, 
shelter  and  the  many  other  drawbacks  already  alluded 
to,  particular  attention  must  be  paid  to  the  prevention  or 
cure  of  certain  maladies  to  which  the  Coffee  shrub  is 
specially  liable.  The  number  of  these  insect  forms  and 
and  fungoid  pests  is  considerable,  but  the  only  ones  of 
sufficient  importance  to  merit  description  are  leaf-blight, 
fly,  bug,  borer  and  canker. 

Leaf-blight. — Is  a  fungus  known  as  Homilica  Vasa- 
tux^  allied  to  the  moulds,  and  is  present  in  some  form  or 
other  all  the  year  round,  first  attacking  the  under  side 
of  the  leaves  causing  spots  or  blotches,  at  first  yellow, 
but  subsequently  turning  black.  These  blotches  are 
covered  with  a  pale  orange-colored  dust  or  powder, 
which  easily  rubs  off;  they  gradually  grow  in  size  until 
at  last  they  have  one  part  of  the  former  with  three  parts 
of  the  latter,  thoroughly  incubating  them  before  use. 
A  disease  known  as  leaf-rot,  rather  prevalent  in  some 
countries,  is  distinguished  from  the  above,  and  which  is 
referred  to  as  a  fungus  named  Pelicaalana  Kolorga, 
sometimes  appears  when  the  leaves  of  affected  shrubs 
become  covered  with  slimy,  gelatinous  matter,  turn  black 
and  drop  off,  the  clusters  of  berries  also  rotting  and  fall- 
ing. There  is  every  probability,  however,  that  the 
sulphur  and  lime  treatment  will  be  effective  in  this  case 
also,  but  the  shed  leaves  and  fruit  should  be  collected 
and  burned  as  a  precaution. 


ENEMIES    AND    REMEDIES.  85 

The  Coffee  Borer. — This  pest,  formerly  known  as 
the  "  worm "  and  "  coffee-fly,"  is  most  troublesome  in 
the  East,  where  in  former  years  it  destroyed  whole  plan- 
tations. It  has  been  identified  as  the  Xycotrechen  qtia- 
dmepes,  and  in  its  complete  stage  the  insect  appears  as 
a  winged  beetle,  having  from  one-half  to  three-quarters  of 
an  inch  in  length,  rather  finer  in  shape  than  a  wasp,  with 
hard,  shiny  coat,  red  and  black  in  color,  but  in  some 
cases  yellow  and  black  in  alternate  transverse  lines, 
boring  a  passage  into  the  stem  of  the  coffee  tree  usually 
a  few  inches  above  the  ground. 

The  Coffee-fly, — This  disease  has  been  known  for 
many  years  in  San  Domingo  and  Brazil,  having  also 
spread  to  Venezuela,  the  Antilles,  Porto  Rico,  Mar- 
tinique, Mexico,  and  all  down  the  Atlantic  coast  of 
South  America.  It  is  caused  by  the  larvae  of  a  moth 
scarcely  half  an  inch  long,  named  Cotnistana  coffcalaun, 
the  color  of  the  insect  being  dull-white  or  pale-gray, 
with  a  bar  across  the  posterior  end  when  quiet.  Its 
motions  are  very  active  and  it  readily  takes  alarm.  This 
insect  prefers  young  and  delicate  leaves,  and  is  most 
active  about  the  commencement  of  the  wet  season,  when 
demolition  spread  over  the  leaves,  which  then  drop  off, 
leaving  the  trees  unable  to  produce  any  crop,  or  to  bring 
to  maturity  that  which  may  have  already  been  produced. 
In  districts  affected  by  the  northwest  winds,  the  fungus 
generally  exists  as  an  external  parasite,  in  the  form  of 
long,  filamentous  threads,  covering  every  part  of  the 
back  of  the  leaves,  but  so  minute  as  to  be  invisible  to 
the  naked  eye.  Of  the  many  remedies  experimented 
with  for  the  suppression  of  this  disease,  one  only  is 
invariably  effective — that  is  a  mixture  of  the  best  quality 
of  flowers  of  sulphur  and  caustic  lime. 


86  ENEMIES   AND    REMEDIES. 


The  majority  of  the  eggs  are  deposited,  but  are  dor- 
mant during  the  wet  season — that  is,  from  March  to 
May.  The  disease  manifests  itself  by  the  appearance  of 
large,  discolored  blotches  on  the  leaves,  causing  their 
decay  and  fall.  As  a  remedy,  it  has  been  stated  that  by 
picking  the  leaves  at  such  a  time,  as  to  take  the  greatest 
number  of  the  larvae  when  about  two  weeks'  old,  it 
would  be  easy  to  destroy  the  pest,  as  the  size  of  the 
blotches  would  then  easily  distinguish  the  diseased 
foliage.  Again,  each  of  these  contains  several  hundred 
eggs  undergoing  incubation,  and  in  a  short  time  the 
whole  of  the  green  wood  of  the  tree  will  become  cov- 
ered with  the  young  insects  and  coated  with  a  black, 
soot-like  powder,  which  renders  the  tree  easily  dis- 
cernible at  a  distance.  The  bug  will  soon  spread  over 
the  whole  plantation,  entirely  checking  the  growth  of 
the  trees,  the  fresh,  young  shoots  being  always  first 
attacked,  and  such  wood  as  is  allowed  to  mature,  pro- 
duces hardly  any  crops;  the  berries,  moreover,  are  in  the 
earliest  stages  destroyed  by  these  insects,  which  cut  them 
off  with  the  stalk.  The  measures  recommended  for 
checking  this  scourge  are  to  dust  the  bushes  with  a 
mixture  of  powdered  saltpetre  and  quicklime  in  equal 
parts,  or  to  brush  or  sponge  the  affected  parts  with  a 
mixture  of  soft-soap,  tar,  tobacco  and  spirits  of  turpen- 
tine, in  about  equal  quantities.  The  white  bug  is  a  dis- 
tinct species  of  insect,  known  as  Fsedococais  adombrum, 
and  is  a  small,  flat,  oval  iiiirect,  about  one-sixteenth  of  an 
inch  long,  covered  witl/.  a  white  down  or  fur,  having  par- 
allel'ridges  running  /icross  its  back  from  side  to  side, 
like  the  wood-louse,  though  on  a  much  smaller  scale. 
It  is  found  in  various,  stages  of  development  all  the  year 
round,  and  takes  up  its  quarters  on  the  roots  of  the 
Coffee  trees,  to  start  one  part  beneath  the  surface,  at  the 


ENEMIES   AND    REMEDIES.  87 

axils  of  the  leaves,  and  among  the  stalks  of  the  crop- 
clusters,  which  it  cuts  off  wholesale,  either  during  the 
blossoms'  stage  or  just  after  the  young  berries  have 
formed.  In  the  latter  case,  its  operations  may  be  easily 
recognized  by  the  large  quantities  of  young,  green  berries 
with  which  the  ground  beneath  the  trees  will  be  strewn, 
and  is  also  discerned  by  a  white,  flour-like  excretion, 
which  it  deposits  around  the  axil-works  where  it  has 
made  its  abode.  The  prescription  alike  recommended 
for  black-bug  will  be  here  found  equally  efficacious,  but 
in  either  case  probably  a  decoction  of  common  tobacco 
might  be  sufficient  when  much  more  evenly  prepared. 

The  Coffee-bug. — The  Coffee  tree  is  attacked  by 
various  species  of  coccida  in  most  countries,  where  they 
are  known  by  different  names,  but  careful  cultivation  has 
greatly  reduced  the  evil.  There  are  two  distinct  species 
of  bug  found  in  the  Coffee-growing  countries,  called 
respectively  the  "  black  "  or  "  scaling,"  and  the  "  white  " 
or  "  mealy."  The  former,  LecuiniimLin  Coffea,  is  a  minute 
insect  which  attaches  itself  to  the  tenderest  shoots  of  the 
plant,  the  females  having  the  appearance  of  small  scallop- 
shells,  of  a  brown  color,  and  adhering  to  the  leaf  or  twig 
in  the  same  manner  as  the  scallop-shell  to  a  rock;  at 
first  horizontal,  soon  takes  an  upward,  spiral  direction, 
and  proceeds  until  a  safe  shoot  is  found  in  which  the 
larvae  may  be  deposited.  The  tree  soon  droops  and 
dies  down  to  the  point  at  which  the  entry  has  been 
effected,  and  where  it  can  be  easily  broken  off  by  a  sharp 
pull  at  the  upper  part.  The  only  course  in  this  case 
is  to  break  off  the  tree  in  this  manner,  and  then  burn  the 
stem  with  the  larvae  secreted  in  its  centre.  Young  shoots 
will  proceed  from  the  stump,  and  one  of  these  may  be 
trained  to  succeed  the  original  stem.     The  insect  is  very 


88  ENEMIES    AND    REMEDIES. 

susceptible  to  the  effects  of  wood  smoke,  and  may  be 
easily  driven  off  or  destroyed  by  the  smoke  of  ordinary 
wood  or  grass  fires. 

Canker,  or  Bark  Disease. — Is  a  disease  of  the  Coffee 

plant  which  has  created  great  havoc  in  Africa  and  other 
countries  of  the  East,  and  which  causes  an  annual  loss 
of  about  one  per  cent,  of  the  trees  of  Jamaica  and  other 
West  India  Islands.  The  first  symptoms  is  the  withering 
of  a  secondary  or  tertiary  branch,  when  it  will  be  found 
that  the  bark  under  the  primary  branches  is  decayed  and 
blue-mouldy,  the  blue  mould  gradually  extending  down- 
wards over  the  whole  stem  ;  a  tree  once  attacked  never 
recovering,  but  dying  in  a  few  months.  All  soils  and 
situations  seem  liable  to  this  disease,  the  trees  beginning 
to  suffer  when  about  six  years  old.  Though  the  mould 
is  the  proximate  cause  of  death,  the  ultimate  cause 
is  undoubtedly  due  to  some  unfavorable  external 
condition. 

The  opinions  of  experienced  planters  as  to  what 
this  may  be  are  various,  being  generally  attributed  to 
neglect  of  cultivation,  to  unstability  of  climate  and  to 
a  want  of  sufficient  depth  of  soil.  All  may  be  practically 
right,  but  the  last  seems  the  most  probable,  and  is  the 
reason  given  for  it  in  many  countries.  Rot,  grubs,  rats 
and  squirrels  are  accounted  for  in  the  following  manner: 
"  Rot,"  or  the  blacking  and  withering  of  the  young  leaves 
and  shoots,  is  due  to  wet  and  cold,  and  may  be  cured  by 
good  drainage  and  mulching.  Grubs  of  a  large  and 
yellow  kind,  destroy  the  tap-roots  of  the  plants,  cattle- 
manure  being  a  fertile  source  of  them,  must  be  well- 
limed.  Rats,  squirrels,  grasshoppers,  ants  and  spiders 
collectively  do  considerable  mischief,  and  should  be 
exterminated  whenever  possible. 


GATHERING   AND    HARVESTING.  89 


The  cluster  of  buds  which  duly  make  their  appearance 
are  at  first  little  dark-green  spikes,  but  as  they  grow 
they  become  straw-colored,  then,  under  the  influence  ot 
a  few  showers,  almost  white,  and  finally  burst  into  snowy 
blossoms,  and  after  a  day  or  two  the  flowers  turn  brown 
and  fade  away,  the  more  gradually  the  better;  when  the 
bloom  is  out,  the  rainfall  is  unwelcome,  but  after  it  is 
"  set "  the  shower  is  beneficial.  The  pistils  of  the  flowers 
now  assume  the  form  of  berries,  gradually  growing  and 
changing  their  color  from  dark-green  to  light-yellow, 
which  finally  drys  out  to  red  or  crimson.  As  soon  as  a 
sprinkling  of  red  berries  is  seen,  picking  should  begin 
and  continue  as  long  as  any  berries  ripen,  that  is  to  say, 
from  one  to  three  months,  but  the  berries  or  "  cherries  " 
as  they  are  more  frequently  called,  must  not  be  picked 
until  they  are  fully  ripe,  which  is  best  indicated  by  a 
deep,  purplish-crimson  color,  and  as  the  crop  rarely  or 
never  ripens  all  at  once,  two  to  three  pickings  are 
required,  the  second  being  the  principal  one,  the  others 
being  rather  gleanings  than  pickings.  Each  mature 
berry  should  be  picked  separately  ofl"  its  stalk  and  never 
stripped  off";  the  cherries  as  picked  are  dropped  into  a 
small  bag  about  eighteen  inches  square,  suspended  fi-om 
the  neck  of  the  picker,  and  the  bags  are  then  emptied 
into  one  or  two  bushel  sacks  or  hampers  placed  at 
intervals  on  the  paths  of  the  pickers.  If  the  berries 
are  allowed  to  get  over-ripe  in  wet  weather,  they  will  be 
liable  to  burst  and  drop  the  beans,  or  to  fall  off"  bodily, 
but  if  on  clean  ground  much  of  them  may  be  recovered, 
while  In  very  hot  weather  they  are  more  likely  to  dry  up 
and  hold  on  to  trees.  In  order  to  convey  the  berries  to 
the  curing-houses  in  some  countries  a  great  saving  is 


90  PULPING   AND    PREPARING. 

effected  in  long  distances,  by  running  them  with  water 
down  galvanized  iron  spouting,  made  in  8-inch  lengths, 
laid  with  even  gradients  and  curves  duly  secured.  The 
berries  are  then  despatched  from  the  cisterns,  to  which  a 
due  proportion  of  water  has  been  admitted,  provision 
being  made  for  collecting  and  utilizing  the  latter  at  the 
mills. 

The  preparation  of  Coffee  for  market  necessitates  the 
erection  of  extensive  buildings  and  machinery  on  large 
estates,  for  which  no  specific  plans  can  be  given,  because 
much  depends  upon  the  size  and  situation  of  the  estate, 
and  as  much  upon  the  kind  and  degree  of  the  prepara- 
tion contemplated.  But  the  site  selected  for  the  works 
should  be  as  near  the  centre  of  the  plantation  as  is  com- 
patible with  securing  a  patch  of  open,  airy  ground  to 
v/hich  a  good  stream  of  water  can  be  brought.  The  first 
requisite  building  should  be  the  "  pulping-house,"  com- 
prising three  floors— the  berry  loft,  the  pulping  platform 
and  the  cistern  floor — and  whenever  possible  it  should  be 
built  against  a  shallow  cliff  or  embankment,  so  that  the 
berry  coffee  may  be  delivered  into  the  loft  without  being 
hauled  upstairs  by  hand,  while  the  berry  loft  is  usually 
placed  immediately  over  the  pulping  platform. 

The  operation  known  as  "  pulping  "  consists  in'clearing 
the  coffee  "  beans "  from  the  pulp  in  which  they  are 
enveloped,  which  with  ripe  berries  is  most  easily  and 
effectively  accomplished  immediately  after  picking,  efforts 
being  usually  made  to  complete  the  pulping  of  a  day's 
picking  during  -the  same  evening.  If  over-ripe  or 
shriveled,  but  still  comparatively  moist  inside,  the  berries 
should  first  be  soaked  in  water  for  a  few  hours  previous. 
A   number   of  machines   have   been   invented   for  this 


PULPING   AND    PREPARING.  9 1 

purpose,  the  chief  objects  in  all  cases  being  to  pulp 
rapidly,  thoroughly  and  without  injury  to  the  bean,  for 
if  the  inner  or  "silver-skin"  of  the  bean  be  broken  the 
latter  is  wasted. 

But  the  latest  and  most  simple  form  of  "  pulping- 
machine  is  what  is  known  as  the  "  Disc  Pulper,"  in 
which  the  separation  of  the  bean  and  the  pulp  is  effected 
by  means  of  rotating  discs,  covered  with  a  thin  sheet  of 
copper,  whose  surface  has  been  *'  knobbed,"  is  raised 
into  sort  of  oval  knobs  by  the  application  of  a  blend 
punch.  Pulpers  of  this  class  being  portable  and  cheap, 
are  most  frequently  used  in  the  opening  of  distant  estates. 
The  "  single "  form  is  very  light,  and  when  driven  by 
three  plantation  hands,  it  will  pulp  all  the  way  from  20  to 
25  bushels  of  berries  an  hour.  The  "  double  "  form,  which 
has  two  discs  and  which  is  furnished  with  a  feeding-roller 
inside  the  hopper,  requires  from  four  to  six  hands  to  pulp 
40  bushels  an  hour,  but  when  driven  by  power,  it  will  hull 
from  70  to  80  bushels  in  the  same  time.  In  the  machine 
the  discs  are  placed  between  "  cushions "  of  smooth 
iron,  set  at  such  a  distance  that  the  berries  cannot  pass 
without  being  bruised.  The  cushions  rest  in  a  movable 
bed  of  iron,  set  so  that  no  bean  can  pass  downwards. 
When  the  disc  revolves,  the  berries  are  driven  forward 
and  squeezed,  the  corrugations  then  catch  the  skins  and 
drag  them  between  the  disc  and  bed.  These  small 
pulpers  have  an  advantage  over  the  larger  ones,  in  that 
each  can  be  set  to  suit  the  size  of  a  portion  of  the  crop — 
which  always  varies  in  size — and  in  that,  with  two  or 
more  machines,  there  is  less  liklihood  of  complete  stop- 
page in  case  of  accident.  One  disc  pulper  to  every  30 
or  40  acres — that  is,  about  three  to  every  100  acres,  two 
to  be  set  alike  for  large  size  and  one  for  smaller  berries — 
should  be  ample  in  a  fair-sized  estate. 


pa  FERMENTING   AND    DRYING. 

There  are  times,  however,  when  it  is  impossible  to 
pulp  Cofifee ;  the  pulpers  may  get  out  of  repair,  or  the 
weather  may  be  so  untoward  that  the  berry  does  not 
ripen  sufficiently,  or  become  too  dry  for  pulping.  In 
these  cases  the  berries  must  first  be  fermented.  The 
best  way  to  do  this  is  to  place  them  in  one  of  the  tanks,  or 
if  the  quantity  is  too  small  to  nearly  fill  a  tank,  in  an 
old  box  or  cask,  and  cover  it  with  sacks  or  grass,  and 
let  it  remain  until  it  acquires  a  good  warmth  ;  then,  when 
the  berries  in  squeezing  are  no  longer  slippery,  they  may 
be  taken  out  and  spread  in  the  sun  to  dry.  For  two  or 
three  nights  it  need  not  be  housed,  nor  will  rain  hurt  it. 
When  dry,  it  may  be  stored  for  curing  like  parchment 
Cofifee,  but  must  not  be  mixed  with  it.  To  ferment  the 
berries  by  leaving  them  in  a  heap  on  the  ground  is  a  bad 
plan  for  two  reasons :  First,  when  fermented  in  this  man- 
ner it  becomes  very  wet  and  collects  dirt,  which,  in  the 
after  treatment,  will  afifect  the  color  of  the  Cofifee. 
Second,  because  in  a  heap  the  fermentation  cannot  be 
equalized  throughout  the  Cofifee.  Pulping  may  be  per- 
formed  whenever  possible,  as  the  increased  trouble  en- 
tailed by  the  latter  process  is  not  compensated  for  by  the 
alleged  improvement  of  the  flavor  and  no  better  price  is 
received  for  it. 

The  "  parchment  "  cofifee  as  it  comes  from  the  pulper 
is  next  submitted  to  a  fermentation  process  for  the  pur- 
pose of  removing  the  saccharine  matter,  without  which 
the  beans  would  not  dry.  This  operation  is  performed 
in  a  series  of  tanks,  whose  capacity  varies  with  the  size 
of  the  estate,  and  which  may  be  arranged  in  squares. 
The  pulpers  are  placed  on  a  platform  above  the  tanks 
and  in  such  a  position  il^at  the  pulped  cofifee  can  be  run 


FERMENTING   AND    DRYING.  9.] 

by  water  into  the  tanks,  which  must  also  be  so  situated 
that  the  coffee  will  always  advance  by  the  aid  of  running 
water  and  may  finally  be  conveniently  conveyed  to  the 
drying  ground,  while  the  water  and  refuse  run  off  The 
amount  of  cistern  accommodation  necessary  for  a  planta- 
tion may  be  based  on  the  allowance  of  one  cubic  foot  for 
each  bushel  of  berries  picked  in  one  day.  The  tanks  are 
seldom  less  than  three  in  number — two  receiving  cisterns, 
each  large  enough  for  the  greatest  possible  daily  picking 
and  a  third  for  washing  the  parchment,  nearly  as  large 
superficially,  as  the  two  others  combined,  that  is,  the 
"  washing "  tanks  from  twelve  to  fifteen  feet  long,  two 
feet  deep  and  separated  by  a  causeway  three  and  one- 
half  feet  wide,  and  the  "  fermenting "  tanks  eight 
by  eighteen  feet  long  and  two  and  one-half  feet 
deep.  These  tanks  are  usually  made  of  brick-work, 
lined  with  cement  or  asphalt,  but  wood  is  much  better 
because  less  cold,  but  all  should  have  a  slight  incline  in 
order  to  assist  the  drainage.  The  receiving  tanks  are 
provided  at  the  lowest  corner  with  a  good-sized  outlet, 
fitted  with  a  plug  and  with  a  movable  sieve  of  perforated 
zinc  or  woven-wire,  fine  enough  to  keep  back  the  coffee 
when  draining  off  the  water,  but  not  so  fine  as  to  choke 
with  saccharine  scum ;  the  receiving  cisterns  being  used 
alternately.  All  the  coffee  pulped  in  one  day  is  allowed 
to  remain  in  the  receiving  cistern  until  a  slight  fermenta- 
tion has  set  in;  this  occurs  in  from  twelve  to  eighteen 
hours  in  mild  weather,  but  in  cold  weather  it  may  take 
from  thirty  to  forty  hours  and  even  more.  There  are 
two  ways  of  conducting  fermentation — the  dry  and  the 
wet — the  former  consists  in  allowing  the  berries  to  be 
without  water,  the  bottom  of  the  tank  being  perforated 
so  as  to  draw  off  the  liquid,  but  by  the  latter  process  the 
tank  remains  full  of  water.     The  dry  system,  however,  is 


94  FERMENTING   AND   DRYING. 

the  better  as  long  as  care  is  taken  to  turn  the  mass  so 
that  the  fermentation  shall  be  equal  throughout;  the 
presence  of  water  equalizes  the  fermentation  but  retards 
it  and  slightly  injures  the  quality  of  the  coffee.  When 
fermentation  is  not  sufficiently  prolonged,  the  beans  will 
assume  a  yellowish  color — called  "  blankety  " — and  will 
be  difficult  to  dry,  becoming  liable  to  absorb  moisture 
at  the  same  time.  But  when  properly  fermented  the 
separation  of  the  saccharine  matters  is  easily  effected  in 
the  washing  tanks,  to  which  the  pulped  beans  and  a  good 
supply  of  water  is  admitted.  The  washing  cistern  is 
provided  with  a  sluice  door  at  the  lowest  corner,  this 
door  commonly  measuring  six  inches  wide  by  three 
inches  deep.  The  coffee  is  meanwhile  constantly  agi- 
tated by  a  wooden  scraper  or  rake,  by  which  the  light 
coffee  and  refuse  matter  float  and  may  be  skimmed  off', 
the  dirty  water  flowing  off  through  a  tall  cistern  pro- 
vided with  a  grating  to  catch  the  skins  and  stray  parch- 
ment, while  the  sound  berries  are  placed  in  draining 
boxes  to  remove  the  excess  of  moisture  and  are.  then 
transferred  to  the  drying  ground  with  the  least  possible 
delay.  But  should  the  climate  be  uncertain  it  will  be 
nece$sary  to  provide  for  the  emergency  of  a  succession 
of  wet  days,  when  drying  cannot  be  proceeded  with. 
Parchment  coffee  may  be  kept  in  the  undried  state  for 
two  weeks  without  injury  by  placing  it  in  a  cistern  exposed 
to  a  continuous  flow  of  cold  water. 

In  drying,  the  berries  to  be  dried  are  first  spread  out 
on  a  flat  surface  exposed  to  the  heat  of  the  sun.  The 
material  forming  the  terrcino  (terrace)  or  drying  ground 
varies  greatly  in  the  different  coffee-producing  countries, 
but  most  commonly  the  ground  is  leveled  and  then 
covered  with  a  kind  of  concrete,  sometimes  asphalt  is 
laid  down,  but,  besides  being  expensive  it  is  not  sure 


FERMENTING  AND   DRYING.  95 

in  hot  climates  to  withstand  the  heat,  and  such  a  surface 
is  liable  to  crack  and  give  way  if  not  carefully  drained. 
A  very  good  and  much  better  plan  is  to  lay  down  coir- 
matting  on  ground  which  has  simply  been  made  smooth 
and  hard ;  the  advantages  of  this  plan  are  its  cheapness, 
the  ease  with  which  extra  ground  can  be  requisitioned 
in  case  of  need,  and  the  use  of  the  matting  as  a  tem- 
porary covering  in  case  of  a  sudden  shower ;  modifica- 
tions of  this  method  are  to  stretch  coir  or  gunny  cloth 
across  modern  frames,  or  across  trays  with  or  without 
wheels.  Shed  accommodations  must  always  be  provided 
ready  for  the  reception  of  the  coffee  at  any  moment,  and 
the  beans  must  be  constantly  turned  over  and  over,  either 
by  light  rakes  or  shovels.  The  drying  must  also  be 
rendered  equable  and  must  not  proceed  too  rapidly  so 
as  not  to  crack  the  parchment  before  the  bean  is  quite 
dry,  for  this  reason  also,  the  coffee  should  not  be  exposed 
too  long  to  a  strong  sun  for  the  first  day  or  so.  During 
the  drying  it  is  gathered  in  each  day  when  the  sun  is 
hot,  but  will  then  continue  to  dry  under  cover.  Every 
care  must  be  taken  to  prevent  overheating,  which  may 
happen  by  prolonged  drying  in  mild  weather ;  rather  than 
permit  this  the  coffee  should  be  returned  to  a  tank,  and 
kept  washed  with  running  water. 

A  new  method,  known  as  "artificial  drying,"  has 
recently  been  adopted  in  Brazil  and  other  countries,  being 
much  quicker  and  cheaper.  An  easy  meany  of  applying 
artificial  heat  is  by  passing  an  iron  pipe,  open  at  both 
ends,  through  a  fire  outside  the  stove  and  below  the  level 
of  the  floor,  continuing  it  into  the  stove  just  beneath  the 
floor ;  the  heated  air,  by  passing  upwards  through  the 
coffee,  will  carry  off  much  of  the  damp.  Revolving  dry- 
ing machines  are  also  in  use ;  one  of  the  best  of  these  is 
one  introduced  originally  for  drying  corn.     It  consists  of 


96  HULLING  AND    PEELING. 

cylinders  into  which  steam  enters  and  agitators  arranged 
so  that  the  coffee  is  impelled  forwards  and  caught  up  and 
rained  down  as  the  cylinder  revolves.  The  central  cylin- 
der works  in  a  steam  packet,  outside  which  is  a  light 
casing  of  sheet  iron,  perforated  at  one  end  so  that  the 
air  may  be  drawn  through  by  a  fan  to  assist  in  the  drying 
and  carry  off  the  liberated  moisture ;  this  machine 
obviates  the  necessity  for  respreading  the  coffee  in  the 
terraces  before  hulling.  Three  days*  thorough  sunning 
usually  suffices  to  render  the  coffee  quite  dry  and  brittle, 
in  which  condition  it  is  known  as  "parchment  coffee,"  in 
which  state,  in  many  countries,  it  is  sent  to  port,  its 
further  curing  being  left  to  the  shippers,  for  not  only  is 
considerable  expenditure  in  buildings  and  machinery 
necessary  for  the  purpose,  but  the  experience  gained  by 
manipulating  various  lots  of  coffee  will  enable  those 
who  make  the  subject  a  special  study  to  bring  the  sample 
up  to  the  best  standard  of  appearance  and  keeping  prop- 
erties, but  the  coffee  retains  its  color  better  if  allowed  to 
remain  for  several  weeks  in  the  parchment,  and  its  quality 
continues  to  improve  for  months,  even  years,  the  pro- 
cess being  known  as  **  curing;"  as,  however,  protracted 
curing  causes  great  subsequent  difficulty  in  removing, 
the  "  silver-skin  "  coffee  is  never  kept  in  the  parchment 
longer  than  is  compulsory. 

This  operation  consists  in  the  removal  of  the  "parch- 
ment "  and  the  "  silver-skin,"  after  which  the  beans  are 
again  exposed  to  the  sun  for  a  period  which  is  difficult 
to  define.  Some  planters  say  that  they  should  be  dried 
till  they  resist  pressure  of  the  thumb-nail,  but  there  is 
really  no  infallible  test,  as  no  two  samples  are  exactly 
alike.   It  needs  much  experience  to  prevent  loss  of  weight 


WINNOWING   AND   SIZING.  97 

by  over-drying,  or  of  color  by  under-drying,  but  they 
peel  best  while  still  warm.  A  variety  of  huUers  have 
been  tried,  but  preference  is  commonly  given  to  the  old- 
fashioned  edge-runner  mill,  composed  of  a  circular  trough 
with  two  large  wheels  revolving  in  it  and  suspended 
about  two  inches  from  the  bottom.  The  trough  is  one- 
half  to  two-thirds  filled  with  beans,  which  remain  until 
the  grinding  action  of  the  revolving-wheels  has  separated 
their  skins,  when  they  are  let  out  by  a  lateral  aperture. 
A  trough  fifteen  feet  in  diameter  should  turn  out  at  least 
1,200  pounds  of  marketable  coffee  an  hour,  four  bushels 
of  good  parchment  coffee  yielding  lOO  pounds  clean 
coffee.  The  appearance  of  the  coffee  immediately  after 
hulling  is  very  light  colored,  but  it  soon  assumes  a  fern- 
green  hue,  which  it  will  retain  unless  exposed  to  damp, 
when  it  becomes  dingy  or  mottled-gray,  and  is  classed 
as  "  country  damaged." 

WIIVIVOWIIVG    A]VI>    SIZIIVO. 

The  peeled  Coffee  as  it  comes  from  the  huller  in  com- 
pany with  the  detached  skins  is  submitted  to  the  influ- 
ence of  a  fan  whose  force  must  be  so  adjusted  that  it  will 
effectually  remove  the  skins  without  cariying  off  the 
Coffee.  When  the  Coffee  has  been  cleaned  from  the 
skins,  it  is  necessary  to  separate  it  into  various  sizes  for 
market,  chiefly  with  the  object  of  rendering  the  subse- 
quent roasting  process  more  equable  in  effect.  Formerly 
the  sizing  was  performed  by  hand-picking,  but  it  is  now 
the  custom  to  employ  a  machine  called  a  "  separator," 
which  consists  of  an  inclined,  revolving  cylindrical  sieve 
formed  of  perforated  sheet-iron  or  steel  wires,  and  divided 
into  sections  of  different  meshes.  The  Coffee  is  fed  in  at 
the  hopper,  which  is  furnished  with  a  regulator  and  an  in- 
ternal worm  for  the  purpose  of  distributing  it  equally, 


98  BUILDINGS   AND    STORES. 

while  a  revolving  brush  prevents  the  meshes  from  being" 
choked.  Sand  and  dust  pass  through  the  first  section 
and  fall  into  the  space  while  the  small  and  broken  beans 
are  delivered  below,  the  best  and  largest  beans  are  caught 
up  and  the  peaberry  rolls  freely  out  at  the  end. 

Though  there  is  no  necessity  for  curing  the  Coffee, 
and  it  may  be  hulled  at  once  if  desired,  the  exigencies  of 
climate  render  a  properly  constructed  warehouse  one  of 
greatest  desiderata.  The  characteristics  of  structure 
must  be,  first,  dryness  combined  with  security;  hence, 
galvanized  iron  forms  the  best  material.  It  is  generally 
of  two  stories,  the  lower  floor  being  sometimes  boarded 
or  asphalted,  but  the  upper  must  always  be  so  made  so 
as  to  admit  of  free  circulation  of  air  through  the  Coffee 
placed  in  it.  This  object  may  best  be  obtained  by  laying 
wire  gauze  or  coir  matting  over  reapers  about  one  inch 
apart.  Abundant  ventilation  must  also  be  provided,  and 
it  will  be  necessary  to  watch  for  any  signs  of  heating. 
Immediately  on  its  appearance  the  Coffee  must  be  turned 
over  rapidly.  An  improved  form  of  Coffee  structure  is 
that  built  on  what  is  termed  the  Clerichew  principle,  in 
which  the  floor  of  the  upper  story  is  constructed  as  in 
the  former  case,  resting  on  joists  running  lengthwise  in 
the  building.  A  ceiling  is  provided  for  the  lower  stoiy 
by  tacking  to  the  joists  cloth  which  has  been  well  soaked 
in  boiled  rice  water  and  lime,  to  render  it  air-tight.  Con- 
tinuous air-passages  are  thus  made  beneath  the  floor. 
About  ten  feet  of  one  end  of  the  lower  apartment  are  par- 
titioned off,  and  its  sides  are  made  as  nearly  air-tight  as 
possible,  and  it  has  no  ceiling  other  than  the  floor  above, 
so  that  the  passages  all  open  into  it.  In  an  opening  in 
the  wall  of  this  chamber  a  pair  of  large  revolving  fans 


PACKING   AND   SHIPPING.  99 

are  placed,  their  rapid  vibrations  drawing  a  continuous 
current  of  air  from  the  inside,  and  therefore  through  the 
Coffee  itself  In  this  manner  dried  parchment  Coffee  can 
be  kept  in  perfect  condition  without  any  turning  over, 
and  by  using  heated  air  on  the  same  principle  as  before 
Coffee  may  be  housed  while  still  only  partially  dry  and 
yet  not  suffer  from  fermentation. 

As  soon  as  the  Coffee  is  sized  and  graded  it  is  ready 
for  the  market.  Bags  are  most  commonly  used,  but  it  is 
best  packed  in  air-tight  casks,  made  from  wood,  which  is 
not  likely  to  taint  the  Coffee  in  any  way.  In  shipping 
Coffee  great  care  is  required  to  prevent  its  coming  in 
contact  with  any  merchandise  that  may  communicate  to 
it  a  foreign  flavor  or  odor.  Vessels  engaged  in  the 
Coffee  trade  should  have  perforated  ventilating  tubes 
from  the  bottom  of  the  hold,  passing  through  the  cargo, 
so  as  to  allow  the  escape  of  all  steam  and  gases  gener- 
ated during  transit ;  without  such  an  appliance  the  beans 
will  be  discolored  and  classed  as  "damaged,"  an  injury 
which  cannot  be  covered  by  insurance.  In  well-ventil- 
ated ships  Coffee  loses  about  one-half  per  cent,  in  weight 
but  gains  in  quality  during  transit;  while  under  bad 
ventilation  there  will  be  a  gain  of  one-half  per  cent,  in 
weight  but  a  loss  of  color,  and  consequent  depreciation 
in  value. 

COST   A]Vr>    PROFIT. 

Here  a  few  remarks  on  the  cost,  prospects  and  profits 
of  coffee  planting  may  not  be  out  of  place.  How  much 
does  it  require  to  start  on  safely  is  frequently  asked. 
From  ten  to  twenty  thousand  dollars  may  be  considered 
a  fair  capital.     As  to  what  kind  of  a  plantation  that  can 


loo  .  COST   AND   PROFIT. 


be  had  for  these  sums  is  a  question  that  from  the  shifting 
nature  of  prices,  and  the  varieties  of  climates,  soils  and 
situations,  cannot  be  accurately  answered,  or  with  even  an 
approximation  to  accuracy.  With  regard  to  the  profits 
of  coffee  planting  the  investor  may  get  a  very  large  return, 
a  moderate  or  a  small  one,  and  he  may  even  suffer,  as  many 
who  have  tried  it  have  done,  a  considerable  loss.  No 
reliance  whatever  can  be  placed  on  the  estimates  so  often 
published,  and  though  many  of  them  may  be  accurate 
enough  as  far  as  they  go,  assuming  that  everything  goes 
well,  good  soil,  climate,  cheap  labor,  good  health,  and  good 
seasons  must  be  taken  into  account,  in  the  brilliant  reports 
of  the  returns  to  be  expected  in  the  first  kw  bearing  years, 
usually  terminating  with  the  assertion  that  **  the  profits 
subsequently  to  be  derived  will  be  something  fabulous." 
Transport  facilities  are  another  important  factor  and  de- 
serving of  much  consideration.  In  many  countries  they 
exceed  the  cost  of  growing  and  preparing  the  crops  for 
market,  and  it  frequently  occurs  in  the  interior  of  Brazil, 
Mexico  and  other  countries,  that  it  does  not  pay  to  for- 
ward the  coffee  to  the  markets  at  the  ports  of  shipment. 
But  whatever  may  be  the  ascertained  advantages  in 
point  of  soil,  temperature,  moisture  and  situation,  and 
however  bountiful  may  be  the  yield  of  the  plants,  the 
speculation  must  always  be  estimated  in  connection  with 
the  cost  and  vicissitudes  with  which  coffee  planting  as  a 
business  is  unhappily  associated.  Anxiety  must  be  in- 
separable from  an  undertaking  exclusively  dependent  on 
native  labor,  and  liable  to  be  affected  at  the  most  critical 
moment  by  its  capricious  commercial  fluctuations.  The 
crops  in  most  of  the  coffee-growing  countries,  when 
saved  on  the  plantation,  has  either  to  encounter  the  risk 
incident  to  transportation  by  hand  through  mountain 
districts  as  yet  unopened  by  roads,  or  the  chances  of 


COST    AND    PROFIT. 


deterioration  to  which  it  is  exposed  in  bullock  carts 
during  long  journeys  to  the  coast.  The  real  facts  being 
that  the  difficulties  in  the  way  of  forming  accurate  agri- 
cultural statistics  are  in  the  coffee-producing  countries 
almost  insuperable,  there  being  either  a  tendency  to  ex- 
aggerate or  depreciate  the  yield,  as  it  best  serves  the 
interests  of  the  cultivators.  And  again  as  regards  coffee 
in  particular,  there  is  no  means  whatever  of  estimating 
the  product.  A  great  deal  being  said,  but  very  little 
known  in  the  way  a  man  generally  requires  to  know 
that  he  may  wish  to  publish  as  reasonably  near  the  truth. 
So  in  going  into  coffee  planting  in  any  country  it  signi- 
fies little  whether  you  know  what  certain  plantations  have 
yielded  or  what  amount  of  profits  may  be  expected. 
One  fact  may  be  relied  on,  however,  that  is,  if  an  estate 
frequently  changes  hands,  it  is  certainly  a  bad  or  indifferent 
one,  if  seldom  it  is  sure  the  coffee  growing  pays  well, 
and  further  it  is  not  necessary  to  inquire,  for  hardly  any 
landed  investment  pays  so  well  as  good  sound  coffee 
property,  and  the  owners  are  therefore  seldom  inclined 
to  part  with  it. 

The  extent  of  coffee  plantations  varies  from  lOO  to  300 
acres,  the  annual  product  ranging  from  500  to  1,000 
pounds  per  acre  of  prepared  coffee,  according  to  location 
and  care  bestowed  on  the  plantation.  The  profits  also 
vary  with  the  ruling  market  price  of  the  coffee  at  time  of 
sale,  of  labor,  transportation  and  the  inscrutable  effects 
of  the  season.  But  a  cost  of  from  ;^350  to  ;^500  per  100 
pounds  may  be  considered  a  fair  average ;  any  yield 
under  300  per  acre  scarcely  paying  expenses,  any  over 
700  paying  a  handsome  profit. 


OH-^r^TEH  ^. 


XZON  JA.ND  DEZSCRIPXXOrOr. 


y^^OFFEE  in  commerce  is  the  seed  which  grows  in 
1  I  I  the  pod  or  fruit  of  the  coffee  plant,  like  the  pea 
^iJ/  or  the  bean.  Geographically,  it  is  divided  into 
U  African,  Asian,  American  and  Polynesian  coffees, 
and,  topographically,  into  "  Mountain,"  or  upland,  and 
"  Plaingrown,"  or  lowland  Coffees,  while  commercially 
they  are  generally  classified  as  "  Mild "  and  "  Strong," 
the  former  comprising  in  trade  the  product  of  all 
countries,  with  the  exception  of  Brazil.  Grown  in  so 
many  different  and  widely  separated  countries,  provinces, 
districts  and  situations,  it  is  but  natural  that  the  different 
products  should  vary  materially  in  size,  style,  color, 
form,  flavor  and  character,  and  which  also  accounts  for 
the  almost  innumerable  commercial  divisions  and  sub- 
divisions of  names,  grades  and  values. 

Africa  is  the  original  home  of  coffee,  it  being  indigenous 
to  almost  the  entire  Continent;  but  while  it  is  to  be 
found  growing  in  a  wild  state  almost  all  over  the  entire 
of  tropical  Africa,  more  particularly  between  the  fifth  and 
fifteenth  parallels,  its  cultivation  for  commercial  purposes 
on  the  "  Dark  Continent "  is  very  light  and  partial  at  the 

103 


I04  AFRICAN    COFFEES. 


present  time,  although  it  affords  a  field  of  boundless  de- 
velopment in  the  future.  African  Coffees  are  divided  into 
West  and  East  Coast,  the  former  comprising  Liberian, 
Loango,  Angola,  Benguelan,  Congo  and  Natal ;  the  latter 
including  Abyssinian,  Egyptian,  Zanzibar,  Mozambique, 
Nubian,  Madagascar,  Bourbon  and  Mauritius. 

Liberian — Is  produced  in  the  Americanized  colony 
known  as  the  "  Black  Republic,"  and  is  principally 
cultivated  in  the  district  of  Mesurado,  on  the  St.  Paul 
river.  It  is  an  extremely  large  dark-brown  bean,  possess- 
ing very  marked  peculiarities,  being  "  concave-convex  " 
— technically  termed  "  Male  or  pea-berry  " — in  form ; 
that  is,  round  on  top,  with  long,  deep  furrow  extending 
longitudinally  down  the  face,  tightly  rolled  or  "  folded  " 
in  appearance  and  very  hard  and  solid  in  texture.  When 
roasted  and  infused  the  liquor  is  dark  in  color,  heavy  in 
body  and  from  30  to  40  per  cent,  stronger  in  flavor  than 
that  of  any  other  variety  grown,  and  is  considered  too 
strong  to  use  alone,  but  when  blended  in  the  proportion 
of  about  one  to  three  parts  of  some  of  the  milder  growths 
it  makes  a  fairly  smooth  and  rich  drinking  coffee. 
The  annual  production  is  limited  —  about  I0,000,C>CX) 
pounds — put  up  in  large,  coarse  bags,  averaging  200 
pounds,  and  is  principally  exported  to  England  and  the 
continent  of  Europe,  where  it  is  used  principally,  on 
account  of  its  ultra  strength,  for  mixing  with  chicory, 
and  sold  chiefly  in  the  form  of  ground  coffee. 

Loango — Also  an  indigenous  variety,  is  grown  in 
the  interior  province  of  Encouge,  deriving  its  trade  name 
from  the  port  of  shipment.  It  closely  resembles  Liberian 
in  form  and  color,  but  is  much  smaller  in  size  and  greatly 
inferior  in   quality,  and  is  sometimes  termed  "African 


AFRICAN    COFFEES.  I05 


pea-berry."  The  raw  or  natural  bean  is  dark-brown  in 
color,  light  or  "  chaffy  "  in  weight,  very  brittle  and  poorly 
prepared,  while  the  liquor  is  almost  black  and  insipid,  if 
not  actually  rank' or  nauseous,  in  flavor,  the  decoction 
tasting  more  Hke  an  infusion  of  char-bones  than  anything 
else  it  may  be  likened  to.  It  is  principally  shipped  to 
Spain,  Portugal  and  other  European  countries,  very  little, 
fortunately,  ever  reaching  the  United  States. 

Angola — Produced  in  the  Portuguese  colony  of  that 
name,  is  medium  in  size,  concave  in  form,  light-brown 
in  color,  strong  and  pungent  in  flavor,  but  lacking  in 
smoothness  and  aroma.  Not  being  regularly  cultivated, 
its  production  is  limited,  that  grown  by  the  settlers  on 
the  uplands  of  the  interior  being  much  superior  to  the 
wild  or  native  sorts. 

Benguelan — Is  another  variety  of  Angola,  grown  in 
the  adjoining  province  to  the  south  and  closely  resem- 
bles it  in  size,  color  and  general  character.  Being  also 
hmited  in  supply,  it  is  rarely  if  ever  shipped  to  this 
country,  what  is  not  retained  for  home  consumption 
being  forwarded  to  Lisbon,  Madrid  and  the  Canaries. 

Congo — Is  a  medium-sized,  heavy  bean,  strong  and 
rich  in  the  cup,  and,  taken  altogether,  a  desirable  sort. 

Natal  Coffee — Is  a  large  light-brown  bean,  closely 
resembling  the  Liberian  product,  being  grown  from  that 
species,  but  greatly  modified  in  body  and  strength. 
Coffee  culture  in  Natal  is  struggling  against  adverse 
conditions,  owing  to  the  spread  of  the  bark  disease  in 
that  colony  and  for  which  no  cure  has  been  found.  This 
is  much  to  be  regretted,  as  the  quahty  of  the  product  is 
very  fair,  the  demand  for  the  article  continually  growing. 


Io6  AFRICAN   COFFEES. 


Some  Coffees  are  also  grown  in  the  States  of  Senegal, 
Gambia,  Sierra  Leone,  St.  Helena  and  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  but,  being  limited  in  supply  and  unknown  to 
commerce,  do  not  need  description  here. 

Abyssinian. — The  Coffee  plant  and  its  product  have 
been  known  in  Abyssinia  from  time  immemorial,  its  fruit 
being  used  there  in  a  roasted  state ^  but  in  solid  form,  for 
centuries  before  its  introduction  to  the  civilized  world, 
receiving  its  now  universal  name  from  the  district  of  Kaffa 
or  Caffa,  in  the  southeastern  part  of  that  country,  and 
becoming  the  parent-plant  of  all  the  numerous  varieties 
now  to  be  found  on  the  Red  Sea  littoral.  At  the  present 
time  it  is  grown  there  in  all  its  native  luxuriance  and 
primitive  abundance,  from  the  borders  of  Narla  to  the 
banks  of  the  Nile,  forming  the  chief  wood  of  the  country. 
It  is  also  cultivated  there  in  almost  all  situations,  on 
plateaus  and  table-lands,  mountain  and  valley,  hill  and 
plain,  growing  as  luxuriantly  and  producing  as  prolifically 
on  low  as  on  upland  sites.  The  bean  is  small  in  com- 
parison with  the  average  coffee  of  commerce,  but  long  and 
narrow  in  shape,  hard  and  "  flinty  "  in  texture,  and  vary- 
ing in  color  from  a  translucent  green  to  a  yellowish  hue, 
according  to  its  age.  In  body  and  flavor  it  ranks  next  to 
Mocha,  to  which  coffee  it  is  analogous,  and  is  by  many 
connoisseurs  preferred  to  it  as  being  smoother  and  less 
heating  in  effect.  It  is  little  known  to  commerce  under 
its  true  name,  being  principally  shipped  from  Massowah 
to  Aden  and  Alexandria,  where  it  loses  its  identity,  mas- 
querading under  the  head  of  "  Long-berry  Mocha,"  and 
going  principally  to  the  Mediterranean  and  other  Euro- 
pean markets.  The  annual  crop  is  large  and  the  yield 
excellent,  but  communication  and  transport  facilities 
being  difficult  and  crude,  the  bulk  of  the  product  does 


AFRICAN    COFFEES.  I07 


not  reach  the  outside  world.  It  is  to  be  hoped,  how- 
ever, that  whenever  this  rich  country  which  produces 
coffee  in  such  wild  abundance  shall  be  permitted,  by 
civilized  man,  to  enjoy  its  fertility  it  will  rapidly  become 
an  article  of  extensive  cultivation  and  commerce. 

Egyptian — Comprises  the  product  of  the  Upper 
Nile  region,  and  that  grown  around  Berber  and  the 
Soudan,  very  little  being  produced  in  the  country  itself 
Being  the  product  of  different  districts,  they  vary  in  size 
and  quality,  ranging  from  small  to  medium,  are  palish- 
green  in  color,  flat  or  regular  in  shape,  and  possess 
superior  drinking  properties ;  so  much  so  that  many  of 
the  smaller  bean  varieties  are  put  up  in  Mocha  bales  at 
Alexandria  and  sold  under  the  name  of  *'  Short-berry 
Mocha,"  being  shipped  principally  to  France  and 
England,  where  they  are  known  to  the  initiated  as 
"Alexandrian  or  Egyptian  Mochas." 

Nubian — Is  a  small-bean  coffee,  hard  and  flinty  in 
texture,  oval  in  shape,  pale-green  in  color,  heavy  in  body, 
and  unusually  rich  in  flavor.  This  variety  is  usually 
forwarded  to  Alexandria  for  conversion  into  a  so-called 
Mocha,  seldom  finding  its  way  into  the  American  or 
European  markets  under  its  legitimate  name. 

Zanzibar — Is  medium  in  size,  regular  in  appearance, 
full  in  body  and  pleasing  in  flavor,  but  also  very  limited 
in  quantity.  Increased  effort  is  now  being  made,  how- 
ever, by  the  French,  German  and  Italian  colonists  to 
increase  and  extend  its  cultivation  in  that  country. 

Mozambique — The  product  is  fairly  good,  ranking 
with  the  average  of  mild  coffees,  medium  in  size,  green- 
ish in  color,  heavy  and  mellow  in  the  cup. 


Io8  AFRICAN    COFFEES. 


Madagascar — Grown  on  the  immense  island  of  that 
name,  to  the  east,  is  a  small-bean  variety,  solid  and  firm, 
but  shorter  and  rounder  than  the  latter.  It  is  of  a  pea- 
green  color  when  first  picked,  but  gradually  assumes 
that  of  a  silver-gray  as  it  matures ;  in  body  it  is  round 
and  full,  in  flavor  rich  and  fragrant.  The  supply  of  this 
variety  is  very  small  when  compared  with  the  extent  of 
area  that  may  be  utilized  for  its  profitable  culture  in  that 
island,  the  entire  product  being  chiefly  retained  for  home 
consumption,  only  small  lots  occasionally  reaching  the 
outer  world. 

Bourbon — Is  a  small,  hard  and  flinty  bean,  being 
chiefly  mountain  grown,  pale-yellow  in  color  and  closely 
resembling  the  Arabian  product,  for  which  coflee  it  is 
extensively  substituted,  large  quantities  of  the  smaller 
beans  being  annually  shipped  to  Aden  to  be  repacked  in 
the  inimitable  Mocha  bales  and  sold  as  *'  genuine  Aden 
Mocha."  The  larger  bean's  are  usually  exported  to 
France  and  the  continent,  where  it  is  held  in  high  esteem 
for  its  rich,  fragrant  flavor  and  aroma,  but  rarely  found 
in  the  American  market  unless  specially  ordered. 

Mauritius — Like  Bourbon  is  also  an  island  coffee, 
the  average  bean  being  medium-sized,  heavy  and  well 
developed,  light-green  in  color,  full  in  body  and  mellow 
in  flavor,  the  liquor,  in  general,  comparing  favorably  with 
that  of  finest  of  the  mild  grades.  The  smaller  beans 
are  separated  and  sold  for  shipment  to  Aden  for  the  pur- 
pose of  adulterating,  or,  what  is  worse,  substituting  for 
Mocha,  where  it  sinks  its  identity,  reappearing  in  the 
European  market  as  "  Short-berry "  Mocha  coffee. 

More  or  less  Coffee  is  also  produced  in  Sofala,  Somali, 
and   the   Soudan,  in  Usumbara,  the  Zambesi,  Nyassa, 


ASIAN    COFFEES.  109 


Nyanza,  and  other  districts  as  far  west  as  the  base  of  the 
Killimanjaro  mountains,  the  total  yield  of  which,  how- 
ever, so  far  as  its  influence  on  the  world's  supply  is  con- 
sidered, is  insignificant,  the  export  capacity  of  the  whole 
not  exceeding  150,000  pounds  annually.  The  entire 
product  of  the  Eastern  provinces  of  Africa  taken  in  con- 
nection with  the  comparatively  small  crops  raised  on  the 
West  coast  makes  that  country  contribute  only  between 
5,000  to  6,000  tons  to  the  world's  supply,  this  amount 
including  all  coffees  grown  in  Egypt  and  the  interior 
countries  of  the  continent  of  Africa. 

Comprise  Arabian,  East  Indian,  Ceylon,  Malayan  and 
all  coffees  grown  in  the  Straits  Settlements. 

Is  universally  but  erroneously  known  to  trade  as  the 
far-famed  "  Mocha,"  as  no  coffee  is  or  ever  was  grown 
there.  Mocha  itself,  being  comparatively  a  modern 
town,  which  rose  with  the  coffee  trade  to  a  short-lived 
prosperity,  the  term  "  Mocha "  as  applied  to  Arabian 
coffee,  being  derived  solely  from  the  shipment  of  its 
product  from  there  in  former  times.  The  internal  dis- 
orders of  Arabia  and  the  efforts  of  Mohamed  Ali  to 
make  the  coffee  trade  pass  through  India  accelerated  its 
decline,  the  place  being  now  nothing  more  than  a  mere 
village.  The  shipment  of  coffee  is  no  longer  carried  on 
there,  being  transferred  further  south  to  the  ports  of 
Aden  and  Hodeida,  yet,  although,  still  known  to  trade 
as  "  Mocha,"  and  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  Arabian 
coffee  has  been  popularly  and  commercially  known  for 
centuries  as  Mocha,  it  never  produced  any  coffee,  being 
situated  as  it  is  in  a  sterile  plain.     Seeing  that  Arabia  is  the 


no  ARABIAN    COFFEE. 


parent  soil  of  most  of  the  coffees  of  commerce,  and  com- 
paratively little  known  as  a  coffee-producing  country,  it 
may  be  interesting  to  transcribe  some  particulars  of  the 
cultivation  and  trade  in  the  article  in  that  country.  The 
Coffee  plant  is  claimed  by  some  authorities  to  be  indige- 
nous to  Arabia,  and  by  others  to  be  simply  exotic,  and 
as  having  been  introduced  there  from  Abyssinia,  but 
at  what  period  of  the  world's  history  has  never  been 
definitely  decided.  The  plant  or  its  product  is  not  men- 
tioned in  the  Koran,  was  certainly  unknown  to  Ma- 
homet, and  his  contemporaries  make  no  reference  to  it 
up  to  the  seventh  century,  although  the  many  commod- 
ities and  beverages  in  use  among  his  followers  in  Mecca 
and  Medina  during  his  Calyphate  are  accurately  and 
minutely  detailed  by  his  biographers,  both  Arab  and 
Christian.  But  while  to  Abyssinia  belongs  the  honor 
of  its  first  discovery,  it  is  to  Arabia  that  the  civilized 
world  is  indebted,  not  only  for  the  first  knowledge  of 
the  plant  and  its  virtues,  but  also  for  the  first  plants 
from  which  it  is  now  so  extensively  propagated  as  well 
as  for  the  first  knowledge  of  preparing  it  in  hquid  form. 
Yet,  although  exotic  to  Arabia,  it  has  been  cultivated 
there  for  centuries,  attaining  its  most  extensive  distribu- 
tion and  highest  standard  of  production  in  the  province 
of  Yemen,  a  highland  country  formed  by  a  labyrinth  of 
precipitant  hills  and  fertile  valleys,  the  air  being  pure, 
and  even  cold  in  some  parts.  These  mountains  are  well 
supplied  with  water,  but  no  considerable  rivers  find  their 
way  from  them  to  the  sea,  tropical  evaporation,  coupled 
with  the  Hght  and  porous  quality  of  the  soil,  drying  up 
the  torrent  beds  :  nor  do  any  natural  lakes  exist  there. 
Artificial  pools  and  reservoirs  have,  however,  been  con- 
structed, in  which  water  is  preserved  all  the  year  round, 
and  are  numerous  in  the  district. 


ARABIAN    COFFEE. 


In  the  province  of  Yemen,  where  the  best  Mocha  cof- 
fees are  produced,  the  plant  is  cultivated  in  both  situa- 
tions, upland  and  lowland,  that  raised  on  the  latter 
being  greatly  inferior  to  that  cultivated  on  the  former 
sites.  The  best  being  that  grown  on  the  mountain  slopes 
under  the  greatest  difficulties  and  natural  disadvantages 
of  climate,  soil  and  site,  the  small  gardens,  for  they 
cannot  be  called  plantations,  being  situated  on  terraces 
ranged  one  above  the  other,  forming  an  amphitheatre  on 
the  mountain  slope  and  literally  covering  its  sides  from 
almost  base  to  apex.  The  plant  is  cultivated  throughout 
more  than  half  these  upland  districts,  the  finest  qualities 
of  the  berry  being  produced  on  the  western  slopes  of  the 
mountains  in  the  neighborhood  of  Bulgosa  and  Sanaar, 
the  capital  of  the  province,  at  elevations  estimated  at 
5,000  feet  above  sea-level.  The  soil  in  these  situations 
is  composed  chiefly  of  basaltic  columns,  the  detached 
rocks  forming  grand  objects  of  landscape,  especially 
where  cascades  of  water  rush  from  their  summits.  Indi- 
cations of  volcanic  action,  long  since  extant,  abound  ; 
basalt  formations  comprising  a  considerable  portion  of 
the  soil  in  the  most  favored  gardens  of  the  coffee-bearing 
districts,  while  in  others  it  is  composed  of  Jurassic  rock, 
basalt-granite  patches  also  occurring  in  many  of  them. 
The  basalts  are  of  great  utility  to  the  inhabitants  of 
this  region,  the  columns,  which  are  usually  separated, 
serving  as  steps  where  the  ascent  is  difficult,  and  as  walls 
to  support  the  gardens  of  coffee  trees,  which  are  prin- 
cipally situated  on  the  steep  declivities  of  the  mountain 
sides,  and  although  requiring  the  well-diffused  heat  of 
an  equatorial  climate  and  a  rich  soil  for  its  most  success- 
ful and  profitable  growth,  it  is  in  this  region  and  under 
these  great  disadvantages  and  peculiarities  of  soil,  climate 
and  situation — hot,  sandy  and  stony — that  the  far-famed 


ARABIAN    COFFEE. 


Mocha  coffee  obtains  its  finest,  richest  and  most  valuable 
developments,  and  to  which  its  superior  excellence  is 
attributed. 

The  gardens  are  arranged  on  rocky  terraces,  situated 
one  above  the  other,  the  slopes  being  densely  covered 
and  close  together  and  are  watered  from  large  reservoirs 
built  upon  the  heights  above  them,  into  which  spring 
water  is  collected  and  sprinkled  in  a  novel  and  ingenious 
manner,  being  first  conducted  to  the  top  terrace  and  then 
allowed  to  fall  gradually  from  one  terrace  to  another, 
where  the  plant  and  shade  grow  so  thick  together  that 
the  sun's  rays  can  hardly  penetrate  among  the  branches. 
The  plants  yield  ripe  fruit  twice  a  year  and  frequently  a 
third  crop  is  gathered ;  the  produce  of  the  latter  is,  how- 
ever, greatly  inferior  to  that  of  the  previous  ones.  The 
cultivation  and  preparation  of  coffee  in  Arabia  are  also 
of  the  simplest  and  most  primitive  kind.  When  the 
berries  have  been  gathered  they  are  carefully  and  assid- 
uously picked  over  and  separated  by  hand  by  experienced 
pickers  and  sorters.  So  constant  and  frequent  is  this 
selecting  and  separating  process  carried  on,  that  a  grad- 
uation almost  as  regular  as  the  degrees  upon  a  map  may 
be  discerned  in  the  grades  and  qualities  of  Mocha  coffee. 
The  operations  of  hulling  and  cleaning  being  performed 
with  the  utmost  seriousness  and  scrupulous  exactness, 
reminding  one  of  the  diligence  ascribed  to  diamond 
searchers  and  gold  hunters,  when  sorting  the  torrent 
sands  for  the  minute  but  precious  treasure. 

The  coffee  is  dispatched  by  caravan  from  the  interior 
to  the  ports  of  Aden  and  Hodeida  at  almost  every 
season  of  the  year,  but  principally  in  February,  March 
and  April,  the  export  consisting  of  crude  and  prepared 
beans ;  the  former  is  dried  in  the  husk,  and  is  termed 
by  the  Arabs  "  Jaffal  coffee."     The  dealers  are  chiefly 


ARABIAN   COFFEE.  II3 


Arabs,  who  frequently  barter  English  manufactured 
goods  for  the  article,  the  producers  seldom  attending 
the  seaport  markets.  The  principal  coffee  dealers  at 
the  shipping  ports  being  Arabs  from  Hadramant,  Syri- 
ans, Armenians,  Bhuddists,  Brahmins  and  Musselmans 
from  Hindustan,  who  also  trade  in  drapery  and  other 
English  goods,  which  they  send  through  their  agents 
in  the  interior  to  pursue  the  aforesaid  system  of  barter 
for  the  coffee.  There  are,  however,  three  or  four  Anglo- 
Indian  firms  in  Hodeida,  and  one  or  two  American 
houses  in  Aden,  who  deal  in  coffee  on  their  own  account. 
Before  reaching  the  harbor  of  Aden,  from  which  port 
the  coffee  intended  for  the,  aristocracy  of  Alexandria  and 
Constantinople  is  chiefly  shipped,  the  beans  are  sifted 
and  re-sifted  by  the  Arab  merchants  en  route^  the  best 
being  retained  for  their  own  use ;  the  less  generous,  flat- 
tened, opaque  and  whitish  beans  alone  reaching  their 
destination,  the  last  stage  seldom  conveying  the  genuine 
article  except  on  rare  occasions,  and  only  then  by 
previous  arrangement,  personal  influence  or  interest. 
That  intended  for  the  Syrian  and  Persian  markets  is  for- 
warded by  caravan  from  Jaffa  and  Beyrouth  under  the 
same  conditions,  as  whenever  mere  sale  and  traffic  is 
concerned,  substitution  of  an  inferior  quality  or  an 
adulteration  equivalent  to  a  substitution  is  frequently 
resorted  to  in  the  storehouses  of  Aden,  and  the  other 
points  from  which  it  is  forwarded,  until  whatever  Mocha 
coffee  intended  for  the  general  European  or  American 
markets  is  no  more  the  real  offspring  of  the  Yemen 
plant  than  the  logwood  preparations  of  a  fourth-rate 
wine  resembles  the  pure  libation  of  an  Oporto  vine- 
yard. 

Arabian  coffee,  like  that  of  all  other  countries,  though 
one  in  name  is  manifold  in  fact.     Geographically  they 


114  ARABIAN   COFFEE. 


are  classified  as  Yemen  and  Tehama,  but  are  known  to 
trade  almost  universally  as  "Mocha"  coffee,  from  being 
at  one  time  all  shipped  from  that  port;  but  since  the 
opening  of  the  Suez  Canal,  the  bulk  of  the  crop  is  now 
shipped  from  the  ports  of  Aden  and  Hodeida. 

Yemen  Mocha — Is  grown  on  the  mountain  slopes 
surrounding  the  towns  of  Bulgosa,  Sanaar  and  the 
valley  of  the  Oudien,  and  constitutes  the  true  Mocha 
coffee,  which  is  rarely  if  ever  exported,  being  consumed 
chiefly  within  the  limits  of  Arabia  itself;  very  little,  so 
little,  indeed,  of  this  variety  finds  its  way  west  of  Con- 
stantinople that  it  is  almost  inappreciable.  Nor,  indeed, 
do  the  latter  always  get  the  best  or  purest,  Arabia,  Syria, 
Persia  and  Egypt  consuming  over  two-thirds  of  the 
limited  product  of  the  Yemen  hills,  the  remainder  being 
reserved  for  the  Turkish  and  Armenian  seosophagi,  from 
which  fact  it  is  sometimes  termed  the  "Aristocrat  of 
Coffees." 

The  true  "  Mocha "  or  Yemen  bean  is  exceedingly 
small,  hard,  round,  and  symmetrical  in  form,  regular 
and  uniform  in  general  appearance,  of  a  translucent, 
olive-green  color  when  new,  but  assuming  a  rich  semi- 
transparent  yellowish  hue  with  age.  It  is  perfectly  clean, 
being  entirely  free  from  stems,  stones,  chaff  and  all  other 
extraneous  matter.  When  fresh  roasted  it  exhales  a 
pleasing  if  not  delicious  odor,  not  even  approached  by 
that  of  any  other  variety  grown  or  known ;  the  liquor  is 
heavier  in  body  than  that  of  Java,  but  creamy  and  rich, 
and  the  flavor  fragrant  and  aromatic  to  an  eminent  degree. 
The  superior  excellence  attributed  to  this  particular  vari- 
ety of  Mocha  coffee  is  said  to  be  due  to  two  causes, 
first  to  the  extreme  dryness  of  the  climate,  hard  granitic 
nature  of  the  soil,  and  second  to  the  fact  that  the  berries 


ARABIAN    COFFEE.  II5 


are  never  picked,  but  allowed  to  fall  from  the  trees  of 
their  own  accord  when  ripe,  and  then  allowed  to  dry 
naturally,  after  which  they  are  gathered  and  hulled  by 
the  simplest  and  most  primitive  methods,  which  process 
of  drying  cannot  be  pursued  in  countries  where  the  rain- 
fall is  great,  as  sudden  showers  spoil  the  crop  if  left 
unprotected.  While  others  claim  that  the  high  reputation 
which  it  so  long  held  in  the  European  markets,  is  not 
to  be  ascribed  to  either  superior  cultivation  or  improved 
stock,  but  to  the  fact  that  the  coffee  was  formerly  shipped 
to  India,  and  thence  by  circuitous  routes  to  Europe,  so 
that  it  was  generally  two  to  three  years  old  when  it  reached 
its  destination,  all  coffees  improving  with  age  and  keeping. 
Still  growing  as  it  does  high  up  on  the  sandy  terraces 
of  the  Yemen  hills,  sparse  of  leaves,  gaunt  and  stunted, 
as  becomes  a  plant  of  the  desert  as  well  as  from  its  con- 
densed vitality,  it  appears  difficult  to  understand  the 
aromatic  pungency  of  its  small  berries,  a  quality  that  has 
never  been  even  approached  by  any  achievement  of  scien- 
tific cultivation. 

Tehama  Coffee — Is  grown  in  the  low,  level  sandy 
plain  of  that  name,  extending  from  the  Red  sea  littoral 
to  the  base  of  the  Yemen  hills,  formed  by  the  arc  of 
their  curve,  and  reaching  from  the  province  of  Hejaz 
in  the  north  down  as  far  as  Aden  on  the  southern  ex- 
tremity of  the  peninsula.  As  might  be  expected  from  its 
geographical  situation  towards  the  coast,  it  is  an  exceed- 
ingly hot,  dry  and  sandy  region,  being  only  of  moderate 
fertility,  the  soil  being  composed  of  an  agglomeration  of 
coral  debris.  The  rains  are  periodical,  sometimes  flood- 
ing the  plantations,  and  hardly  drying  up  through  the  year, 
the  coast  being  indented  with  several  small  harbors. 
The  coffee  produced  in  this  district — like  all  plain-grown 


Il6  OTHER   VARIETIES. 


or  lowland  coffees — is  greatly  inferior  to  the  mountain  pro- 
duct of  Yemen.  The  bean  is  small,  irregular,  immature 
and  chaffy,  having  a  gnarled  or  shriveled  appearance, 
greenish  in  color  when  new  but  assuming  a  yellow- 
ish hue  as  it  dries.  Being  only  imperfectly  cured  it 
frequently  contains  fragments  of  hull,  fibre  and  small 
stones.  It  is  invariably  "quakery"  when  roasted,  and 
in  body  and  flavor  is  inferior  to  the  average  run  of  what 
are  known  in  trade  as  "  mild  coffees."  Yet,  though  not  a 
palatable  coffee  when  drunk  alone,  it  makes  a  fairly  fra- 
grant infusion  when  combined  with  a  Preanger  or  other 
good  Java.  It  is  principally  shipped  from  Hodeida,  now 
the  second  considerable  port  in  the  Red  sea,  from  which 
it  is  known  to  trade  as  "  Hodeida  Mocha,"  and  in  con- 
tradistinction to  that  shipped  from  Aden,  and  known  as 
"Aden  Mocha."  At  Hodeida  the  coffee  is  sold  in  the 
custom  house,  whither  it  is  brought  from  the  interior. 
The  Hodeida  dealers  also  receiving  large  quantities  of 
Malabar,  Bourbon  and  other  small-bean  varieties  to  mix 
with  or  substitute  for  the  original  sort. 

There  are  several  other  varieties  known  to  trade  and 
sold  as  Mocha  coffee,  but  having  little  or  no  relation  to 
it.     Among  these  are  : — 

Lechia. — Shipped  from  a  small  port  to  the  north  of 
Hodeida  and  from  which  it  derives  its  trade  name.  It  is 
very  inferior  in  quality,  roasting  and  drinking  poorly, 
and  on  the  whole  not  a  desirable  sort. 

Djebelli. — Which  is  imported  into  Aden  from  the 
African  coast,  and  is  a  mountain-grown  coffee  possessing 
valuable  cup  qualities.         ^ 


OTHER  VARIETIES.  II7 


Berberah. — Also  an  African  coffee  recognized  by  its 
large  and  tapering  bean,  heavy  body  and  rich  infusion, 
and  used  principally  for  mixing  with  or  substituting  for 
genuine  Mocha  coffee. 

Havar. — Another  variety  of  Mocha  coffee  known  to 
trade  as  **  Havar"  or  "  Hazar,"  which  comes  from  the 
south  African  coast  of  the  Red  sea,  is  being  recently 
shipped  from  Aden.  The  bean  is  long  and  pointed, 
greenish  in  cast,  and  solid  in  structure;  it  roasts  and 
drinks  exceedingly  well,  being  preferred  by  many  con- 
noisseurs to  the  true  Mocha  bean. 

Mussowah  —  Is  an  Abyssinian  variety,  previously 
described,  deriving  its  trade  name  from  being  shipped 
from  that  port  on  the  African  coast  of  the  Red  sea. 

Egyptian  Mocha. — In  Alexandria,  Mocha  coffee  is 
imitated  by  the  substitution  of  small-bean  African  varieties, 
principally  produced  in  Berber,  Nubia,  Somali  and  the 
interior  of  the  Soudan,  which  are  carefully  picked  over 
and  assorted  by  hand,  the  larger  beans  being  separated 
from  the  smaller,  the  better  to  adapt  them  to  their 
respective  markets,  being  usually  shipped  to  France  and 
other  continental  European  countries. 

Arabian  or  "Mocha"  Coffee  is  put  up  in  large  grass- 
mat  bales — containing  two  smaller  packages  termed 
"  quarters  "  or  four  termed  "  eights  " — distinctive  in  shape 
and  material,  being  made  of  a  coarse,  grassy  substance 
and  sewn  with  a  fibrous  ligature  that  becomes  excessively 
hard  and  tough  as  it  seasons.  The  exports,  the  amount 
of  which  it  is  difficult  to  determine  owing  to  the  fact  that 
there  is  no  real  custom-house  control  in  the  country, 
consists  of  about  8,000,000  to  10,000,000  pounds  only, 
about  half  of  which  only  is  pure  Mocha,  the  product  being 
so  badly  manipulated  and  so  extensively  substituted  with 
other  coffees  of  foreign  origin  and  inferior  quality. 


Il8  EAST-INDIAN    COFFEES. 


Unlike  tea,  coffee  was  not  introduced  into  India  by- 
European  enterprise,  and  even  in  the  present  day  its  cul- 
tivation there  is  largely  followed  by  the  natives  only.  The 
Malabar  coast  has  always  enjoyed  a  direct  commerce 
with  Arabia,  and  at  an  early  date  in  the  world's  history- 
gave  many  converts  to  Islam,  one  of  whom,  Baba 
Bouden  by  name,  is  said  to  have  gone  on  a  pilgrimage 
to  Mecca  and  to  have  brought  back  with  him  "  seven 
coffee-berries,"  which  he  planted  on  the  hill  range  of 
Mysore  and  which  is  still  called  after  him,  and  which, 
according  to  local  tradition,  occurred  about  two  centuries 
ago.  The  shrubs  thus  said  to  be  sown  lived  on,  but  their 
systematic  cultivation  did  not  spread  until  the  beginning  of 
the  present  century.  While  another  account  states  that 
the  coffee-plant  was  first  introduced  into  India,  on  the 
Malabar  coast,  by  the  Arabs  themselves,  as  far  back  as 
1740,  yet  no  official  mention  is  made  of  the  plant  or  its 
product  in  that  country  up  to  1822,  when  its  cultivation  as 
a  curiosity  was  first  began  in  the  Wynaad  district,  another 
plantation  being  formed  later  in  the  adjoining  district  of 
Manjarabad.  The  Baba  Bouden  range,  in  the  State  of 
Mysore,  also  witnessed  the  first  opening  of  a  coffee  planta- 
tion by  an  English  planter  in  1840,  the  success  of  this 
experiment  leading  to  the  extension  of  coffee  cultivation  in 
the  neighboring  districts  of  Madras  and  Malabar.  In  1 840, 
a  plantation  was  also  started  in  Manautoddy,  and  in  1842 
it  was  found  growing  well  in  Belgaum.  From  1842  to 
i860,  however,  the  enterprise  made  but  slow  progress, 
but  since  the  latter  date  it  has  spread  with  great  rapidity 
along  the  whole  line  of  the  Western  Ghauts,  clearing 
away  the  primeval  forest  and  opening  up  a  new  era  of 


EAST-INDIAN    COFFEES.  II9 

prosperity  to  the  laboring  classes  in  that  country,  its  cul- 
tivation for  commercial  uses  increasing  at  a  most  remark- 
able rate. 

Coffee  at  the  present  time  in  India  is  grown  all  along 
the  summits  and  slopes  of  the  Western  Ghauts  from  the 
northern  limits  of  Kanura  south  to  Cape  Comorin,  the 
chief  centres  of  production  being  located  in  the  Presi- 
dencies of  Madras,  Mysore,  Malabar,  Coorg  and  Travan- 
core,  attempts  being  also  made  to  introduce  the  plant  into 
the  Bengal  district  of  Chittagongand  the  northern  districts 
of  Nepaul,  the  Punjaub  and  British  Burmah,  the  cultiva- 
tion extending  within  the  past  few  years  to  the  Shevaroy 
hills  in  the  Salem  district  as  well  as  to  the  Neilgherry 
and  Pulmey  mountains  in  Madras,  the  slopes  adjacent 
to  Octacamund  being  literally  covered  with  coffee 
plantations  on  every  side.  In  India,  after  the  berries, 
or  "cherries,"  as  they  are  called  there,  have  been 
harvested,  they  are  cured  in  one  of  two  ways,  one 
of  which  is  to  pulp  them  in  the  soft  state,  the  coffee 
being  known  as  "  Cherry -dried,"  while  by  the  other 
they  are  dried  first  and  the  pulp  removed  by  a 
huller.  Where  the  latter  method  is  adopted,  they  are 
spread  upon  terraces  and  there  kept  until  complete 
desiccation  takes  place,  the  coffee  prepared  in  this 
manner  being  known  as  "thick-JiuU"  or  "sun-dried" 
coffee.  They  are  classified  in  trade  as  "  Malabar," 
*•  Mysore,"  "  Wynaad,"  "  Tellicherry,"  "  Coorg,"  "  Neil- 
gherry" and  "  Travancore,"  grading  commercially  in 
the  order  named. 

Malabar — Produced  on  the  western  slopes  of  the 
Ghaut  mountains,  is  a  small,  hard,  whitish  bean,  closely 
resembling  a  Bourbon,  being  frequently  shipped  to  Aden 
for  substitution  or  conversion  into  Mocha  coffee.     It  is 


I20  EAST-INDIAN   COFFEES. 

full  in  body,  high  in  color  and  rich  in  flavor,  particularly 
when  old,  ranking  high  commercially  in  the  European 
markets,  where  it  is  principally  disposed  of. 

Mysore — Is  a  mountain  coffee  grown  on  the  slopes 
of  the  Eastern  Ghauts,  and,  like  all  mountain-grown 
coffees,  is  large  or  bold  in  style,  bluish-green  in  color, 
hard  and  solid  in  texture,  heavy  in  body,  but  apt  to  be 
somewhat  "grassy"  in  flavor  when  new,  mellowing  con- 
siderably, however,  with  age.  It  commands  a  higher 
price  in  the  English  market  than  Java,  not  on  account 
of  its  intrinsic  worth,  but  from  the  fact  that  English 
merchants  favor  the  products  of  their  own  colonies  to 
the  prejudice  of  all  others. 

Wynaad — Is  simply  a  Malabar  coffee,  grown  in  the 
interior  of  that  province,  and  deriving  its  trade-name 
from  the  district  of  growth,  and  possessing  the  same 
intrinsic  qualities  of  body,  color  and  flavor,  being  heavy, 
rich  and  fragrant  in  the  cup. 

Tellicherry — Is  another  variety  of  Malabar,  deriving 
its  commercial  cognomen  from  the  port  of  shipment,  but 
is  generally  conveyed  to  the  coast  for  curing,  and  is 
classed  commercially  with  it,  being  used  for  the  same 
purpose  of  mixing  or  substituting  for  Mocha. 

Coorg — Is  a  plain-grown  or  lowland  coffee,  large 
and  flat  in  appearance,  dark-greenish  when  new,  but 
becoming  a  dull-white  with  age,  and  while  regular  and 
uniform  in  the  roasted  state  is  apt  to  be  "  quakery." 
The  liquor  is  thin  and  flat  in  the  cup,  while  the  flavor 
is  somewhat  "  mawkish  "  to  the  taste. 

Neilgherry — Although  a  mountain  coffee,  seems  to 
be  an  exception  to  the  general  character  of  this  variety, 
for  while  the  bean  is  fairly  large  in  size  and  uniform  in 


EAST-INDIAN   COFFEES. 


appearance,  it  is  usually  moist  and  soft  in  substance, 
losing  heavily  in  the  roast,  and  yielding  a  flat,  almost 
insipid  liquor. 

Travancore — Grown  in  the  extreme  South,  is  a  low- 
land variety  having  an  average-sized,  flat,  but  whitish 
bean,  soft  or  "  spongy  "  when  new,  but  becoming  light 
and  brittle  as  it  dries.  It  is  invariably  "  quakery  "  in 
the  roast,  thin  and  watery  in  the  cup,  and  lacking  in  even 
an  approach  to  fragrance. 

Burmah  CoflFee — Is  a  comparatively  new  variety  to 
commerce,  being  only  recently  introduced,  and  very 
limited  in  supply  to  the  present.  The  bean  is  fairly 
large  and  regular  in  form,  greenish  in  color  and  soft 
in  texture  in  the  natural  state,  tough  or  "  leathery  "  when 
roasted,  and  wild  or  "grassy"  in  the  infusion  —  defects 
due  to  its  newness,  which  may,  however  disappear  in  the 
later  crops.  A  very  large  portion  of  the  surface  of  Burmah 
is  admirably  adapted  for  the  cultivation  of  fine  coffees,  but 
it  still  remains  in  its  primeval  state  of  unproductive  jungle, 
owing  to  the  entire  absence  of  natural  energy  on  the  part 
of  the  natives,  who  have  been  described  as  the  laziest  under 
the  sun.  At  the  present  time,  however,  the  government  is 
making  liberal  offers  to  Europeans  and  others  who  under- 
stand the  art  of  coffee-planting  in  order  to  develop  the 
industry  in  that  country;  such  settlers  being  offered  free 
grants  of  land  in  the  celebrated  Tavoy  district,  the  only 
conditions  being  the  cost  of  survey  and  demarcation. 

India  coffees  are  classed  in  the  English  market  as 
"Bold,"  "Middling  "and  "Small,"  the  bulk  of  the 
small-bean  Mysore,  Malabar  and  Wynaad  being  shipped 
to  Aden  and  Alexandria,  where  they  are  repacked  and 
sold  as  Mocha.  The  average  quantity  and  value  ot 
the  coffee  product  of  India  is  about  40,000,000  pounds. 


122  CEYLON   COFFEES. 


valued  at  ;^75,ooo,ocX),  fully  one-half  of  which  is  retained 
for  home  consumption,  the  balance  being  shipped  to 
England  and  France,  which  are  the  two  next  largest 
consumers  of  India  coffee,  although  in  both  countries 
it  is  subject  to  excessively  heavy  duties.  The  average 
product  per  acre  is  only  about  350  pounds,  but  the 
drought  having  affected  the  plantations  would  of  itself 
sufficiently  account  for  the  diminished  exports  if  the 
leaf  disease  and  borer  did  not  also  help  to  keep  down 
the  yield. 

The  history  of  coffee  cultivation  in  the  island  of  Cey- 
lon is  one  fraught  with  interest  and  full  of  instructive 
lessons,  which,  since  the  year  1845,  has  assumed  a 
position  of  great  and  ever-increasing  importance.  Al- 
though coffee  is  claimed  to  have  been  an  article  of 
growth  and  export  from  Ceylon  even  as  far  back  as  the  time 
of  the  Portuguese,  it  only  grew  wild  there  without  any 
attempt  at  cultivation.  Small  patches  of  it  were  to  be 
found  around  the  Kandyan  villages,  growing  in  wild 
luxuriance,  the  berries  being  gathered  before  they  were 
ripe  and  imperfectly  cured,  seldom  possessed  much  flavor, 
they  were  but  lightly  esteemed  as  an  article  of  commerce. 
Its  systematic  cultivation  was  first  commenced  in  1824, 
by  Sir  E.  Barnes,  the  then  governor,  who  hoped  by  his 
example  to  introduce  coffee  planting  by  Europeans  into 
the  island.  Up  to  1834,  however,  public  attention  does 
not  seem  to  have  been  occupied  with  the  industry,  but  in 
that  year  the  falling  off  in  supplies  from  other  countries 
brought  capitalists  into  the  field,  and  when,  in  1836,  the 
duty  in  England  was  reduced  to  six  pence  per  pound,  a 
great  impulse  was  given  to  coffee  planting  in  Ceylon. 
During  that  and  the  following  year  about  7,000  acres  of  the 


CEYLON   COFFEES.  1 23 


finest  lands  were  purchased  for  the  purpose,  until,  at  the 
end  of  a  few  years,  it  became  a  matter  of  notoriety  that 
the  soil  and  climate  of  Ceylon  were  capable  of  producing 
coffee  equal  in  value  to  most  kinds  then  grown,  when  the 
influx  of  capital  from  England  for  investment  in  this 
new  branch  of  industry  became  simply  enormous.  In 
1840,  nearly  1 0,000  acres  of  mountain  forest  were 
felled  and  planted  in  coffee,  and  in  an  exceedingly  short 
space  of  time  the  sale  of  crown-lands  for  coffee  culture 
averaged  40,000  acres  per  annum.  The  mountain  ranges 
on  all  sides  of  the  district  of  Kandy  became  speedily 
covered  with  plantations,  the  great  valleys  of  Ambo- 
gamoa,  Doombera,  Kotmalie  and  Pusilawa  were  occupied 
by  speculators,  others  settling  in  the  steep  passes  of 
Neurailla  and  penetrating  the  Ouvah  and  Badulla 
districts,  coffee-trees  quickly  blooming  on  every  solitary 
hill,  even  up  to  and  around  the  very  base  of  Adam's 
peak.  The  first  ardent  adventurers  pioneering  their  way 
through  pathless  woods,  living  in  log-cabins  whilst  felling 
the  forest  and  making  their  preliminary  preparations  for 
planting,  until,  in  a  few  years,  the  paths  by  which 
they  came  were  converted  into  roadways  and  their 
cabins  replaced  by  comfortable  "  bungalows."  The 
coffee  cultivation  mania  in  Ceylon,  however,  reached 
its  climax  in  1845,  when  the  governor,  council,  mili- 
tary, judges,  civil  servants,  and  even  the  clergy  pene- 
trated the  hills  in  their  mad  haste  to  become  purchasers 
of  crown  lands  for  coffee  growing.  The  East  India  Com- 
pany's officers  crowded  to  Ceylon  to  invest  their  savings 
in  coffee  lands,  capitalists  from  England  at  the  same 
time  arriving  by  every  vessel,  the  bulk  of  the  emigrants 
as  a  class  being  more  than  ordinarily  aristocratic,  and 
who,  if  not  already  opulent,  were  still  in  haste  to  become 
more  so.     So  dazzling  was  the  prospect  that  expenditure 


124  CEYLON   COFFEES. 


was  unlimited,  its  profusion  being  only  equalled  by  the 
ignorance  and  inexperience  of  those  to  whom  it  was 
intrusted ;  five  millions  sterling  being  sunk  in  the  "  Coffee 
craze  "  in  less  than  as  many  years.  The  rush  for  coffee 
lands  at  this  period  in  Ceylon  was  only  paralleled  by 
tlie  movement  towards  the  gold  mines  of  California  and 
Australia,  but  with  this  painful  difference,  that  the  wild 
enthusiasts  in  Ceylon  instead  of  thronging  to  disinter 
were  hurrying  to  bury  their  gold,  for  in  the  very  midst 
of  their  visions  of  riches  a  crash  suddenly  came  which 
awakened  the  victims  to  the  reality  of  their  ruin.  The 
financial  panic  of  1845  ^^  England  rapidly  extended  its 
destructive  influences  to  Ceylon ;  remittances  ceased, 
credit  failed,  prices  fell,  and  the  first  announcement  on 
the  subsidence  of  the  turmoil  was  the  doom  of  protec- 
tion and  the  withdrawal  of  the  distinctive  duty  which 
had  so  long  screened  the  British  coffee  plantations  from 
competition  with  those  of  Java  and  Brazil.  The  con- 
sternation thus  produced  in  Ceylon  was  proportionate  to 
the  extravagance  and  hopes  that  were  blasted,  coffee 
plantations  being  forced  into  the  market,  and  many  sold 
off  for  a  twentieth  part  of  the  outlay  incurred  in  forming 
them,  while  others  that  could  not  be  sacrificed  at  any 
price  were  abandoned  and  allowed  to  return  to  their 
natural  jungle.  For  over  three  years  the  enterprise 
appeared  paralyzed,  the  ruined  disappeared  and  the  timid 
retreated,  but  those  who,  combining  judgment  with 
capital,  persevered,  succeeded  eventually,  not  alone  in 
restoring  energy  to  the  enterprise,  but  in,  imparting  to  it 
the  prudence  and  experience  gleaned  from  former  similar 
disasters.  Still,  the  crisis,  had  it  not  been  precipitated 
by  the  calamities  of  1845,  must  have  ensued  eventually, 
from  the  indiscretion  of  the  previous  period;  and  the 
healthy   condition    which    coffee    planting    appears   to 


CEYLON   COFFEES.  1 25 


have  attained  at  the  present  day  in  Ceylon  results  from 
the  correction  of  the  errors  then  committed ;  and  it  is 
no  exaggeration  to  state  that  there  is  not  a  single  well- 
established  principle  now  governing  the  management 
of  the  plantations  and  the  conduct  of  the  proprietors 
that  was  not  preceded  by  a  directly  opposite  policy 
in  1845. 

Since  the  explosion  of  this  second  edition  of  the 
"  South-sea  bubble "  in  Ceylon,  the  island  has  made 
rapid  strides  in  coffee  growing,  the  mountain  forests 
have  been  replaced  by  extensive  plantations,  of  which 
there  are  at  the  present  day  no  less  than  i,ooo 
under  cultivation,  yielding  an  average  annual  crop  of 
nearly  80,000,000  pounds  exclusive  of  that  raised  by  the 
natives.  Observation  has  also  since  discerned  the  true 
tests  of  soil,  chmate  and  aspect,  former  delusions  as  to 
high  altitudes  have  been  exploded,  unprofitable  districts 
avoided  and  unproductive  localities  abandoned.  And  in 
lieu  of  the  belief  that  the  coffee  tree,  once  rooted,  would 
continue  ever  after  to  bear  crops  without  further  atten- 
tion or  manure,  and  flourish  perennially  in  defiance  of 
weeds  and  neglect,  every  plantation  is  now  tended  like 
a  garden,  and  the  soil  enriched  artificially  in  proportion 
to  the  produce  it  bears,  expenditures  also  being  reduced 
within  the  bounds  of  discretion.  An  acre  of  forest  land 
can  now  be  purchased  for  one-tenth  of  what  it  cost  in 
1844,  and  though  the  extravagant  prices  and  the  still 
more  extravagant  expectations  of  that  period  have  been 
entirely  dissipated,  coffee  planting  at  the  present  day  in 
Ceylon  under  careful  supervision,  promises  as  sound  an 
investment  as  moderate  enterprise  can  hope  for.  Sys- 
tematic coffee  cultivation  is  almost  exclusively  con- 
fined to  the  hill  region,  which  embraces  the  districts  of 
Kandy,  Pusilawa,  Doombera,  Kotmalie  and  Ambogama, 


126  CEYLON   COFFEES. 


although  irregular  native  gardens  are  to  be  found  every- 
where in  the  southwestern  portion  of  the  island,  even 
close  to  the  seashore.  The  favorite  and  most  productive 
elevation  is,  however,  between  3,000  and  4,000  feet 
above  sea-level,  but  in  a  few  exceptional  cases  planta- 
tions descend  almost  to  the  foot  of  the  hills,  others  being 
situated  nearly  6,000  feet  above.  While  native  gardens, 
sometimes  bearing  good  crops,  may  be  met  with  along 
the  coast  actually  at  sea-level ;  in  such  instances,  how- 
ever, the  gardens  are  limited  in  extent,  and  are  generally 
richly  manured  and  well  watered  during  the  dry  season. 
The  principal  coffee-producing  zone  of  Ceylon  of 
the  present  day  is  chiefly  situated  in  what  is  known 
as  the  Gampola  district,  in  which  the  scientific  cul- 
tivation of  coffee  was  first  attempted,  and  the  point  at 
which  the  great  roads  converge  connecting  the  rich 
coffee  districts  of  Doombera,  Kotmalie  and  Pusilawa 
with  the  ports  of  Kandy  and  Colombo.  The  soil  and 
situation  of  the  Gampola  district  have  proved  so  favor- 
able to  the  growth  of  the  coffee-plant  that  there  is  hardly 
one  of  the  magnificent  hills  seen  from  it  that  has  not  been 
taken  possession  of  by  planters,  the  plantations  being 
situated  chiefly  in  the  mountain  ranges  on  all  sides  of  it. 
Ceylon  coffees  are  classified  commiCrcially  as  "  Native," 
**  Plantation,"  "  Liberian  "  and  ''Mountain"  or  "Mocha," 
the  latter  being  nothing  more  than  a  small-bean  planta- 
tion coffee  usually  separated. 

Native. — What  is  known  to  commerce  as  "  Native 
Ceylon  "  is  principally  produced  in  the  district  of  Ouvah 
by  native  growers,  from  which  fact  it  derives  its  trade- 
name. Being  a  plain-grown  or  lowland  coffee,  the  bean 
is  large  and  flat  in  style,  greenish,  moist  and  "  flabby  " 
when  first  picked,  but  bepoming  almost  white,  broke*! 


CEYLON    COFFEES.  I27 

and  "chaffy"  as  it  dries.  It  is  a  poor  "roaster/' 
being  invariably  "quakery,"  weak  and  thin  in  the 
infusion,  and  devoid  of  any  distinctive  flavor  or  aroma 
in  the  cup. 

Plantation — Derives  its  trade-name  from  its  being 
systematically  cultivated  in  regularly-laid-out  plantations, 
by  scientific  methods  under  intelligent  management,  and 
is  without  doubt  one  of  the  finest  varieties  grown,  rank- 
ing high  commercially  for  its  intrinsic  value.  The  raw  or 
natural  bean  is  large,  bold,  symmetrical  and  exceedingly 
well  developed,  of  a  light  bluish  or  translucent-green 
tint  or  cast,  very  regular  and  invariably  uniform  in  gen- 
eral appearance.  It  roasts  even  and  handsomely,  as  fine,  if 
not  more  so,  than  any  variety  known,  while  in  the  infusion 
it  is  rich  and  strong,  but  smooth  and  creamy  in  body, 
fragrant  and  aromatic  in  flavor ;  an  equal  quantity  of  this 
variety  yielding  a  heavier-bodied  and  richer  liquor  than 
that  of  the  finest  Java,  but  will  not  be  quite  as  high  in 
flavor. 

Liberian-Ceylon — Is  produced  fi-om  a  transplant  of 
the  Liberian  species,  which,  owing  to  the  destruction 
caused  by  the  "  leaf  disease  "  on  the  Ceylon  plantations, 
has  been  introduced  to  that  island,  on  account  of  its 
being  considered  much  stronger,  hardier  and  better  able 
to  withstand  disease  than  the  native  trees,  but  while  it 
was  found  specially  adapted  to  the  plains  and  low-lying 
situations,  it  would  not  bear  so  well  on  the  upland  or 
mountain  slopes.  A  hybrid  species  was  at  length  evolved, 
the  product  of  which  is  known  to  trade  as  "  Ceylon- 
Liberian,"  the  bean  of  which  in  the  natural  state  is  not 
quite  as  large  as  that  of  the  parent  plant,  not  as  convex 
in  shape,  the  color  being  paler,  bordering  on  a  rich  yel- 
low instead  of  brown,  while  the  infusion  though  not  as 


128  CEYLON   COFFEES. 


heavy  in  body  or  dark  in  color,  is  much  smoother  and 
more  palatable,  the  too-heavy  properties  of  the  original 
being  greatly  modified  by  climatic  and  other  causes. 

Geylon-Moclia — Is  a  small  bean,  mountain-grown, 
coffee,  very  even  and  uniform,  usually  separated  from  the 
regular  plantation  var'sty.  The  raw  or  unroasted  bean 
is  of  a  steel-blue  or  silvery-grey  color,  according  to  age, 
exceedingly  rich  in  liquor  and  fragrant  in  flavor,  and  con- 
sidered by  some  experts  to  be  equal  in  drinking  qualities 
to  any  variety  grown,  being  frequently  shipped  to  Aden 
for  substitution  or  mixing  with  Mocha  coffee. 

Ceylon  coffees  are  usually  packed  in  casks  and  in 
hogsheads  (except  Native,  which  is  put  up  in  bags), 
the  former  weighing  400  and  the  latter  1,000  pounds, 
and  shipped  to  England,  where  it  commands  a  high 
price,  relatively,  and  where  they  are  graded  as  No.  I 
(largest) ;  2  (medium) ;  3  (small),  and  ^'  Triage,"  or  com- 
mon, but  generally  as  "Plantation"  and  "Native"  in  the 
American  market.  In  1880  it  was  estimated  that  the 
capital  invested  in  coffee  culture  amounted  to  over 
;^70,ooo,ooo,  a  notable  increase  having  taken  place  since 
that  year,  there  being  at  the  present  time  some  forty 
districts  on  the  island  in  which  coffee  culture  is  carried 
on  for  commercial  uses.  While  the  native  product  is 
usually  calculated  to  extend  over  50,000  acres,  which, 
however,  varies  very  much,  according  to  the  character  ot 
the  season,  the  prices  obtained,  and  the  cheapness  oi 
money.  The  annual  exports  are  about  80,000,000 
pounds,  giving  an  average  yield  from  old  and  new 
plantations  of  a  little  over  400  pounds  per  acre. 

Include  the  products  of  the  islands  of  Java,  Sumatra, 
Celebes,  the  Sunda  and  many  other  of  the  smaller  islands 
of  the  Malayan  Archipelago. 


JAVA    COFFEES.  12Q 


Java  is  a  generic  term  applied  to  all  coffees  grown  in 
the  Eastern  Archipelago,  and  is  almost  a  synonym  for 
coffee.  While  the  coffee  plant,  which  is  only  known  in 
Java  by  its  European  appellation  and  its  intimate  relation 
with  European  despotism,  was  first  introduced  into  that 
island  by  the  Dutch  at  the  close  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  and  has  ever  since  remained  one  of  their  chief 
articles  of  exclusive  monopoly.  The  labor  by  which  it 
is  planted  and  its  produce  collected  is  included  among 
the  oppressions  or  "  forced  services  "  of  the  natives  at 
inadequate  rates.  Previous  to  the  year  1808  the  cultiva- 
tion of  coffee  in  Java  was  principally  confined  to  the 
Sunda  districts,  there  being,  up  to  that  year,  but  few 
plantations  comparatively  in  the  eastern  districts,  the 
product  of  which  they  were  capable  of  yielding  not 
amounting  to  one-tenth  of  the  whole.  But  under  the 
rapacious  administration  of  the  Dutch  East  India  Com- 
pany and  government  the  cultivation  of  coffee  has 
usurped  the  soil  of  almost  the  entire  island,  otherwise 
destined  for  yielding  the  subsistence  of  the  people,  the 
cultivation  of  all  other  products  being  made  subservient 
to  it  and  the  withering  effects  of  a  government  monopoly, 
extending  their  influence  indiscriminately  throughout 
every  province  and  district  in  the  island.  In  the  Sunda 
districts  particularly  each  native  family  is  compelled  to 
care  for  1,000  coffee  plants,  and  in  the  eastern  districts, 
where  new  and  extensive  plantations  are  being  formed 
from  time  to  time  in  soils  and  situations  in  many  instances 
by  no  means  favorable  to  its  profitable  culture,  650 
plants  is  the  prescribed  allotment.  No  negligence  can 
be  practised  in  the  performance  of  this  duty,  the  whole 
operations    of   planting,    picking    and    pulping    beirg 


130  JAVA    COFFEES. 


conducted  under  the  immediate  superintendence  of  the 
government  officials,  who  select  the  sites  where  the  new 
plantations  are  to  be  formed,  seeing  that  they  are  pre- 
served from  weeds  and  rank  grasses  and  overseeing  its 
selection  and  removal  to  the  "go-downs"  or  warehouses 
when  prepared.  Under  this  system  the  Sunda  districts  are 
estimated  to  yield  an  annual  produce  of  100,000  piculs,  and 
it  was  at  one  time  calculated  that  the  young  plantations  of 
the  eastern  districts,  when  they  should  come  into  full  bear- 
ing, would  produce  an  equal  quantity,  but  in  the  latter 
section  many  of  the  plantations  had  been  formed  on  ill- 
judged  sites,  the  natives  being  also  averse  to  the  new 
and  additional  burden  which  this  increase  of  cultivation 
imposed  upon  their  labor.  Had  the  system  been  per- 
severed in  or  enforced  by  a  despotic  authority,  it  is 
questionable  whether  the  quantity  anticipated  in  the 
above  estimate,  or  even  one-half  of  it,  would  have  been 
obtained  from  the  eastern  districts.  The  Sundas  living 
in  an  island  and  mountainous  country,  and  having  been 
long  accustomed  to  the  hardships  of  coffee  culture,  are 
less  sensible  of  its  pressure  than  the  rest  of  their  coun- 
trymen, time  and  habit  having  reconciled  them  to  a  sys- 
tem of  servitude,  which  was  at  first  revolting  to  them, 
and  a  state  of  slavery,  which  the  philanthropist  laments 
as  degrading,  is  scarcely  felt  to  be  even  a  grievance  by 
themselves.  Instances,  however,  are  not  wanting  in 
which  the  usual  measure  of  exaction  having  been  sur- 
passed they  have  been  awakened  to  a  sense  of  their 
wretchedness,  a  government  of  colonial  monopolists, 
eager  only  for  profit,  and  heedless  of  the  sources  from 
which  it  is  derived,  subjecting  its  native  subjects  to  priva- 
tions and  distresses,  the  recital  of  which  shock  the  ear 
of  humanity.  In  brief,  the  system  of  coffee  culture  in 
the  island  of  Java  has  sometimes  been  so  severely  exacted 


JAVA   COFFEES.  I3I 


that,  together  with  the  other  constant  and  heavy- 
demands  made  upon  them  by  the  government  authority 
on  the  native  labor  of  the  country,  that  they  deprived 
the  unfortunate  peasants  of  the  time  necessary  to  raise 
food  for  their  own  support,  many  thus  perishing  by 
famine,  while  others  fled  to  the  mountains,  where,  rais- 
ing a  scanty  subsistence  in  patches,  or  often  dependent 
for  it  upon  the  roots  of  the  forest,  they  congratulated 
themselves  on  their  escape  from  the  reach  of  their 
oppressors ;  numbers  of  these  people,  with  their  descend- 
ants, remaining  in  these  haunts  to  the  present  time.  In 
their  annual  migrations  they  frequently  pass  over  the 
richest  lands,  which  still  remain  uncultivated,  awaiting 
their  return  to  till  it,  but  they  prefer  their  wild  independ- 
ence and  precarious  subsistence  to  the  horrors  of  being 
again  subjected  to  forced  servitude  and  forced  deliveries 
at  inadequate  compensation. 

In  the  Java  highlands  the  tree  yields  fruit  for  a  period 
of  twenty  years,  while  on  the  plains  or  lowlands  it  seldom 
attains  a  greater  age  than  nine  or  ten,  bearing  only  dur- 
ing six  or  seven  of  these,  the  fruit  being  larger  compara- 
tively, but  the  flavor  less  as  a  general  rule.  About  the  end 
of  the  rainy  season  such  plants  as  have  not  thriven  are 
replaced  by  others  and  the  plantations  cleared,  this  latter 
operation  in  well-managed  plantations  being  generally 
performed  from  three  to  four  times  in  the  year,  the  tree 
being  never  topped  or  pruned,  but  universally  allowed  to 
grow  in  all  its  native  luxuriance.  In  this  state  it  often,  in 
favored  situations,  reaches  a  height  of  sixteen  feet,  and 
plants  eight  inches  broad  have  been  frequently  procured 
from  the  trunks.  The  average  product  of  a  coffee  tree  in 
Java  is  not  estimated  at  much  more  than  i  ^  pounds, 
but  there  are  instances  on  record  where  as  much  as  from 
twenty  to  thirty  pounds  have  been  yielded  by  a  single 


132  JAVA   COFFEES. 


plant  in  a  season.  Again,  in  Java  there  does  not  appear 
to  be  any  fixed  or  certain  season  for  the  plant  to  arrive 
at  maturity,  as  in  the  Western  countries,  the  gathering 
usually  commencing  in  June  or  July,  and  it  is  not  until 
late  in  the  following  April  that  the  entire  crop  is 
delivered  to  the  go-downs.  The  picking  season  in  gen- 
eral, however,  consists  of  three  pickings  or  crops  of 
which  the  first  or  "roor-pluk,"  which  is  small,  begins 
in  February,  the  second  or  "  main-pluk "  in  May  or 
June,  when  the  heaviest  portion  is  gathered.  It  is  also 
termed  the  "full-pluk,"  from  being  the  most  abundant  of 
the  season  the  third  or  "  after-pluk,"  being  what  is  left 
to  open  on  the  trees,  may  be  considered  more  of  a  glean- 
ing, as  it  is  merely  a  general  sweep  of  the  fallen  berries. 
When  the  berries  become  of  a  dark  crimson  color  they 
are  plucked  off  one  by  one  with  the  assistance  of  a  light 
bamboo  ladder,  the  greatest  care  being  taken  not  to 
shake  off  the  blossoms  which  still  remain  on  the  tree  or 
to  pluck  the  unripe  fruit.  The  women  and  children  of 
the  country  usually  do  the  picking,  the  men  attending  to 
the  heavier  work  around  the  plantations.  Attached  to 
every  village  near  which  there  are  coffee  plantations  of 
any  extent,  there  is  a  "  drying-house,"  to  which  the 
newly-gathered  coffee  is  carried  and  where  it  is  placed  on 
hurdles  about  four  feet  from  the  floor,  under  which  a 
slow  wood-fire  is  kept  up  during  the  night;  the  roof  is 
opened  in  the  mornings  and  evenings  to  admit  the  air, 
the  berries  being  frequently  stirred  meanwhile  to  prevent 
fermentation.  As  the  excessive  heat  of  the  sun  is  con- 
sidered prejudicial,  the  roof  of  the  "drying-house"  is 
closed  during  mid-day,  this  operation  being  continued 
until  the  husk  is  thoroughly  dried.  The  coffee  dried 
in  this  manner  is  generally  small,  sea-green  or  grayish 
in  color  and  is  supposed  to  acquire  a  peculiar  flavor 


JAVA   COFFEES.  1 33 


from  the  smoke,  although  it  does  not  appear  that  any- 
particular  kind  of  wood  is  used  as  fuel.  On  the  other 
hand,  when  the  coffee  is  dried  in  the  sun  the  bean 
becomes  of  a  pale  yellowish  color,  is  larger  in  size, 
specifically  lighter  in  weight  and  more  pungent  in 
flavor  than  the  former.  The  most  common  method  of 
pulping  in  Java  among  the  natives  is  to  pound  the  ber- 
ries when  dried  in  a  bag  made  of  buffalo  hide,  care  being 
taken  not  to  break  or  mutilate  the  beans.  A  mill  of  the 
most  elementary  construction  is,  however,  sometimes 
used  for  the  purpose,  but  is  said  not  to  answer  as  well. 
When  the  operations  of  pulping  and  cleaning  are  com- 
pleted the  coffee  is  then  put  in  bags  and  baskets  and 
stood  on  raised  platforms  until  the  period  of  delivery 
arrives,  when  it  is  carried  to  the  "  go-downs  "  or  store- 
houses, sometimes  by,  men  but  more  generally  on  the 
backs  of  buffaloes  and  mules  in  strings  of  from  1,500  to 
2,000  at  a  time.  In  the  Sunda  district  there  are  three 
principal  depots  for  receiving  the  coffee  from  the  culti- 
vators— Chikan,  Karang  and  Buitzenorg.  From  Buit- 
zenorg  it  is  either  sent  direct  to  Batavia  by  land  in  carts 
or  by  way  of  Linkong,  whence  it  is  forwarded  in  boats 
by  the  Chidana  river,  while  from  Chikan  the  coffee  is 
sent  in  boats  down  the  river  Chitaram  and  thence  along 
the  sea-coast  to  Batavia,  where  it  is  received  into  exten- 
sive warehouses  and  from  which  it  is  in  turn  generally 
exported  to  the  European  and  American  markets. 

Up  to  a  very  recent  period  almost  all  coffee  in  Java 
was  cultivated  by  the  natives  under  supervision  of  the 
Dutch  government,  which  had  a  monopoly  of  the 
product,  deriving  an  enormous  revenue  from  its  cultiva- 
tion. Under  this  system,  each  family  was  compelled  to 
cultivate,  pick,  dry,  hull  and  deliver  the  coffee  at  the 
nearest  government  warehouse  for  transport  to  the  port 


134  JAVA   COFFEES. 


of  shipment,  the  natives  being  allowed  but  a  small  per- 
centage of  the  crop  as  compensation  for  their  labor  in 
many  instances,  but  more  generally  the  government  plac- 
ing a  figure  so  low  as  to  enable  it  to  sell  the  coffee  at  an 
enormous  profit,  and  also  deducting  again  a  heavy  duty 
from  the  gross  price  paid  to  the  growers,  thereby  deriv- 
ing an  almost  fabulous  revenue  from  this  system  of 
cultivation. 

It  is  dif^cult  to  state  what  recompense  the  native 
cultivator  of  coffee  receives  in  Java  for  his  services  and 
his  product,  the  complicated  system  of  accounts  which 
prevails  there  seem  only  calculated  to  puzzle  or  mystify 
the  investigator  and  allow  the  Dutch  commissary  to 
derive  an  income  of  from  eighty  to  one  hundred  thousand 
dollars  per  annum  at  the  expense  of  the  government  by 
whom  he  is  employed,  on  the  one  hand,  and  that  of  the 
natives  whom  he  oppresses,  on  the  other.  Latterly, 
however,  it  has  been  directed  that  the  cultivators  should 
receive,  on  delivery  at  the  government  storehouses, 
"  three  rix-doUars  (copper)  for  each  "  mountain  "  picul  (225 
pounds)  of  coffee,  being  very  little  more  than  one  dollar 
per  hundred,  while  this  same  coffee  has  frequently  been 
sold  in  Batavia,  within  fifty  miles  of  the  spot  where  it 
was  raised,  at  twenty  dollars  per  hundred,  and  has  been 
seldom  sold  in  the  European  or  American  markets  at  less 
than  twenty  cents  per  pound.  It  is,  also,  difBcult  to  fix 
the  exact  rate  at  which  the  coffee  might  be  produced 
under  the  free  system,  but  that  it  can  be  raised  for 
exportation  at  ten  dollars  per  hundred  with  profit  is 
beyond  doubt.  The  price  paid  the  natives,  however,  is 
deemed  liberal  by  the  Dutch  government,  though  in 
many  cases  it  has  to  be  transported  over  sixty  miles  of 
an  almost  impassible  country,  where  two  men  are  required 
to  carry  a  hundred  pounds  of  coffee  on  their  shoulders 


JAVA    COFFEES.  I35 


and  at  an  expense  of  labor  which  one  would  suppose  at 
least  equal  to  the  renumeration. 

All  the  available  mountain  slopes  on  the  island  of 
Java  are  literally  covered  with  coffee  plantations,  owned 
and  operated  by  the  Dutch  government,  which  assigns 
to  each  Javanese  family  the  cultivation  and  care  of  from 
600  to  1,000  trees  under  severe  penalties,  the  natives 
being  compelled  to  deliver  their  crops,  hulled  and  cleaned, 
to  the  nearest  government  stores  at  the  end  of  the  harvest, 
accepting  in  return  whatever  price  the  government  is 
pleased  to  put  on  it.  Considerable  coffee  is,  however, 
cultivated  by  the  natives  themselves,  independently  of  that 
raised  directly  for  the  government,  being  chiefly  grown 
along  the  borders  of  the  government  plantations  and 
other  unused  patches,  as  well  as  along  the  fences  around 
their  farms,  being  generally  raised  in  the  shade;  the  berry 
of  some  of  this  coffee  attains  a  high  excellence  rivalling 
if  not  actually  excelling  the  government  product  in  many 
instances. 

A  considerable  portion  of  the  peasantry  having 
' — as  already  observed  —  been  long  accustomed  to  the 
cultivation  of  coffee,  it  is  owing  to  their  skill  and  experi- 
ence that  the  coffee  owes  its  excellence  as  much  as  to  any 
direct  knowledge,  superintendence  or  interference  of  the 
Dutch  officials,  who  derive  their  information  from  the 
natives,  having  little  more  to  do  than  occasionally  ride 
around  the  plantations  with  a  pompous  suite,  keep  the 
accounts  and  examine  the  coffee,  as  it  is  received  from 
the  cultivators.  The  plantations  are  generally  laid  out  in 
squares,  the  distances  between  the  plants  varying  accord- 
ing to  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  that  is,  in  a  soil  not  con- 
sidered fertile,  a  distance  of  six  feet  is  preserved,  and  in 
each  interval  is  planted  a  ''dadap"  tree  for  the  purpose 
of  affording  shade  to  the  plants;  while  in  a  rich  soil  where 


136  JAVA    COFFEES. 


the  plant  grows  more  luxuriantly,  fewer  shade  trees  are 
required  and  the  plants  are  placed  at  greater  distances 
from  each  other.  But  in  Java,  a  certain  degree  of  shade 
appears  to  be  necessary  at  all  times  to  the  health  of  the 
coffee  plant,  especially  during  its  earlier  stages,  and  in  low 
situations,  for  which  purpose  the  dadap  tree  is  found  to 
be  better  calculated  for  affording  this  protection  than  any 
other  kind  in  the  country,  it  befng  a  common  saying  on 
that  island  that  "where  the  dadap  flourishes,  there  also 
will  flourish  coffee."  But  it  must  not  be  inferred  from 
this  that  they  are  always  constant  or  even  necessary 
companions,  for  in  the  highlands  many  of  the  most 
flourishing  plantations  are  to  be  observed  with  but  very 
few  dadaps  in  the  vicinity. 

Coffee  is  cultivated  for  commercial  use  in  all  of  the 
twenty-two  residencies  into  which  the  island  is  divided, 
including  Bantam,  Batavia,  Bezoeki,  Bagelen,  Banjoe- 
wanjie  and  Banjoemas,  Cheribon,  Japara,  Kadoe, 
Kediri  and  Krawang,  Madioen,  Rembang,  Preanger, 
Probolingo,  Passoeren  and  Pekalongan,  Soerabaya, 
Soerakarta  and  Djokjakarta,  Bali,  Timour,  Malang  and 
Samarang,  each  of  which  residencies  or  districts  contain- 
ing from  five  to  fifty  plantations,  by  which  they  are  further 
distinguished.  In  trade  they  are  generally  divided  into 
"  Government "  and  "  Free  Coffees,"  the  free  cultivation 
being  now  permitted  in  the  residencies  of  Bantam,  Cheri- 
bon and  many  other  of  the  Eastern  districts.  And,  as 
with  the  coffees  of  all  other  countries,  the  product  of 
the  different  districts  of  Java  varies  considerably  in 
quality  and  value,  many  of  them  possessing  a  richness 
and  mellowness  not  approached  by  that  of  any  other 
country ;  others,  again,  being  so  inferior  that  were  it  not 
for  the  fact  of  being  grown  on  that  island  they  would 
not  be  deserving  of  the  name. 


JAVA    COFFEES.  I37 


Bantam  and  Batavia — Are  medium-sized,  yellowish 
in  color,  regular  and  uniform  in  appearance,  roasting  and 
drinking  exceeding  well,  being  generally  clean  and  free 
from  quakers. 

Bagalen  and  Bezoeki — Are  rather  bold  and  plump 
in  style,  rich  yellow  in  color,  solid  and  compact  in  form, 
full  in  body  and  fragrant  in  flavor,  ranking  with  the  best 
of  the  Java  growths. 

Banjoewanjie  and  Banjoemas — While  not  plentiful 

sorts,  rarely  coming  to  this  market,  being  principally 
shipped  to  Holland,  where  they  are  much  appreciated  for 
their  great  strength  and  rich  flavor,  are  medium-sized, 
heavy  and  round  in  body,  creamy  and  fragrant  in  the  cup. 

Cheribon  and  Japara — Are  rather  light  in  weight 
and  color,  inclined  to  be  "  chaffy"  in  the  natural  state 
and  "  quakery "  in  the  roasted,  but  nevertheless  yield  a 
pleasing  and  palatable  liquor  on  infusion. 

Kadoe  and  Kediri. — Are  small,  hard-bean  coffees, 
approaching  brown,  and  usually  good  drinkers,  being  a 
favorite  in  the  European  market,  where  they  rank  high 
commercially. 

Rembang  and  Krawang.— Rank  next  to  Kadoe  in 
general  cup  qualities,  but  are  somewhat  irregular  in  the 
raw  state,  roasting  and  drinking  well,  however. 

Preanger  and  Probolingo. — The  soil  of  these  dis- 
tricts being  pre-eminently  adapted  for  the  cultivation  of 
fine  coffees,  they  are  noted  for  their  products.  The  bean 
is  round,  full  and  well  developed,  high-yellow  in  color, 
but  assuming  a  rich-brown  with  age,  firm  and  regular  in 
style,  rich,  mellow  and  creamy  in  liquor,  fragrant  and 
aromatic  in  flavor,  rivalling  the  best  product  of  Arabia 
itself. 


138  OTHER   VARIETIES. 


Passoeren  and  Pekalongen— Rank  next  to  Prean- 
ger,  being  usually  brown,  regular  and  uniform,  full  in 
body,  round  in  flavor  and  as  a  general  rule  very  fragrant, 
particularly  when  the  crop  is  good. 

Madioen  and  Soerabaya — Belong  to  the  yellow- 
bean  class,  and  are  rather  light  in  weight  and  body  but 
pleasing  and  agreeable  in  the  cup,  approximating  to  a 
fine  Cucuta  Maracaibo  in  form,  liquor  and  general 
characteristics. 

Soerakarta  and  Djokjakarta— Are  among  the  best 
of  the  Java  growths,  large,  heavy  and  well-developed  in 
bean,  handsome  and  attractive  in  the  roasted  state,  yield- 
ing a  rich  golden-yellow  liquor,  creamy  in  body  and 
aromatic  in  flavor. 

Bali  and  Timoor — Are  grown  on  the  small  islands 
to  the  south  of  Java,  and  though  fair  in  size  and  quite 
brown  in  color,  are  nevertheless  deceptive  in  roasting  and 
drinking  qualities. 

Malang  and  Samarang— Are  light  in  weight  and  in 
color,  somewhat  chaffy  in  the  natural  state  and  "  quak- 
ery  "  in  the  roasted,  thin,  flat  and  flavorless  in  liquor. 

Old  Government  Java — Is  a  trade  term  applied  to 
coflee  grown  and  stored  under  the  supervision  of  the 
officers  of  the  Dutch  government,  and  in  contradistinc- 
tion to  that  raised  by  the  natives,  but  is  now  an  almost 
obsolete  term.  It  is  produced  principally  in  the  Prean- 
ger  district,  where  the  greatest  care  and  attention  is 
bestowed  on  its  cultivation  and  curing,  its  cultivation 
never  being  entirely  entrusted  to  the  natives ;  the  pri- 
mary object  of  the  government  officials  being  to  improve 


OTHER  VARIETIES.  1 39 


the  berry  and  enhance  its  value  to  the  exclusion  of 
increased  quantity.  After  being  picked  and  cured,  it  is 
stored  in  "  go-downs  "  or  storehouses  for  a  number  of 
years,  frequently  seven,  before  being  offered  for  sale, 
the  go-downs  being  erected  expressly  for  the  purpose, 
being  open  at  the  sides  so  as  to  admit  the  sun  and  air  in 
order  to  mature  and  season  the  coffee,  which,  like  wine, 
improves  with  age,  the  bean  assuming  with  time  a  dark- 
brown  color  and  the  flavor  becoming  richer  and  more 
mellow  by  the  development  of  the  volatile  or  essential  oil 
contained  in  the  beans.  By  prolonged  keeping  in  the 
raw  state  it  is  found  that  the  richness  of  any  seeds  in 
this  peculiar  oil  is  increased,  and  with  increased  aroma 
the  coffee  yields  a  blander  and  more  mellow  beverage. 
Stored  coffees,  for  this  reason,  loses  weight  at  first  with 
great  rapidity,  sometimes  as  much  as  8  per  cent,  having 
been  found  to  dissipate  in  the  first  year  of  keeping,  5  per 
cent,  in  the  second  and  2  per  cent,  in  the  third ;  but 
such  loss  of  weight  is  more  than  compensated  for  by  the 
improvement  in  quality  and  consequent  enhancement  ol 
value.  Old  Government  Java  is  for  this  reason  celebrated 
for  its  superior  excellence,  and  justly  deserving  of  its  high 
repute.  Latterly,  however,  the  term  has  been  indis- 
criminately used  and  applied  to  all  Java  coffees  of  a  brown 
color,  irrespective  of  age,  grade  or  district  of  production 
and  has  thereby  ceased  to  possess  any  real  significance  as 
implying  any  extra  merit  or  superiority  over  the  average 
run  of  Java  coffees.  The  natural  bean  of  the  true  Old 
Government  Java  Coffee  is  large,  round  and  well  devel- 
oped, of  a  rich  brown  color,  exceedingly  regular  and 
uniform  in  general  appearance  and  entirely  free  from 
defects  of  any  kind,  while  the  infusion  is  round  and  heavy 
in  body,  creamy,  mellow  and  fragrant  in  flavor,  surpassing 
in  general "  cup  qualities  "  that  of  any  other  variety  grown. 


140  OTHER  VARIETIES, 


All  coffees  raised  under  the  supervision  of  the  govern- 
ment are  disposed  of  through  the  agency  of  the  **  Nether- 
lands' Maatschappy,"  or  Trading  Company,  at  the 
periodical  (quarterly)  auction  sales  held  in  Batavia  or 
Amsterdam,  the  sales  occurring  in  the  months  of  March, 
June,  September  and  December.  It  is  offered  for  sale 
only  in  limited  quantities — from  one  to  two  hundred 
picul  lots — no  purchaser  being  permitted  to  buy  more 
at  a  single  bidding,  the  prices  varying  at  each  sale,  being 
regulated  by  the  quantity  offered  and  the  number  ot 
orders  received  by  the  agents  or  brokers  to  buy,  so  that 
parties  purchasing  two  or  more  lots  cannot  calculate 
what  the  average  cost  will  be  until  the  sale  is  ended. 

Plantation — Or  "  Private  Growth  Javas,"  are  so 
termed  from  being  grown  on  plantations  owned  and 
operated  by  private  or  individual  planters,  and  in  con- 
tradistinction to  that  raised  under  government  super- 
vision. Being  grown  from  selected  seed,  under  the  best 
agricultural  conditions  and  scientific  cultivation,  it  pro- 
duces a  quality  of  coffee  that  cannot  be  surpassed  for 
size,  style,  color,  regularity  and  general  intrinsic  merit. 
It  is  also  marketed  differently  from  the  government 
system,  being  disposed  of  by  contract  or  tender,  that  is, 
as  soon  as  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  crop  can  be 
estimated,  the  planters  issue  a  circular  letter  or  note  to 
the  principal  firms  of  Batavia  and  to  the  representatives 
of  European  and  American  houses,  informing  them  of  the 
facts  and  soliciting  bids  for  the  entire  crop.  Proposals 
are  received  and  the  coffee  sold  to  the  highest  bidder ; 
but  if,  according  to  the  planter's  views,  the  offers  are  too 
low,  he  claims  the  right  to  reject  them  and  hold  the 
coffee  for  a  better  market.  If  accepted  the  coffee  is  care- 
fully picked  over,  assorted  ar>d  transported  to  the  shipping 


OTHER  VARIETIES.  I4I 


port  by  the  planter  and  delivered  in  bulk,  the  purchaser 
furnishing  his  own  bags  and  marks,  the  coffees  being  oi 
such  high  repute  and  quality  they  sell  high,  there  being 
great  competition  to  obtain  them.  Many  of  these  plan- 
tations were  in  existence  prior  to  the  introduction  of  the 
government  monopoly  system,  or  are  situated  on  the 
estates  of  the  native  princes,  who  have  been  permitted 
to  retain  some  portion  of  their  sovereign  privileges. 

Liberian-Java — Is  the  product  of  a  transplant  oi 
the  Liberian  species  introduced  into  the  island  about  ten 
yearo  ago,  where  it  was  found  to  prosper  well  and  vigor- 
ously ;  a  great  demand  springing  up  for  its  seed,  the 
cultivation  increasing  and  yielding  a  bean  much  larger 
than  that  produced  by  the  parent  plant,  full  and  well 
developed,  yellow  to  brown  in  color,  concave  in  form 
and  closely  resembling  "Padang"  in  liquor  and  flavor. 

W.  I.  P. — Or  "  West  India  Prepared  "  Java  is  so  termed 
from  being  pulped  and  prepared  by  the  "Washed"  or 
West  India  process,  being  also  known  to  trade  as  *'  Blue- 
bean  Java."  The  raw  bean  is  bold,  regular  and  bluish- 
green  in  color,  hard  and  solid  in  substance,  heavy,  rich 
and  flavory  in  liquor.  Some  authorities,  how^ever,  con- 
tend that  this  new  process  is  detrimental  to  the  coffee, 
claiming  that  by  the  old  or  "  dry-hulled  "  method  the 
bean  retained  all  the  properties  of  the  coffee  to  a  much 
greater  degree,  whereas  by  the  new  process,  considerable 
of  the  active  principle  (caffeine)  is  carried  off  in  the 
washing. 

Loeke  or  "Tiger-cat  Java*' — Is  a  variety  of  Java 
coffee  highly  prized  for  the  intrinsic  merits  imparted  to  it 
by  a  peculiar  process.  It  is  composed  simply  of  the 
undigested  beans  which  have  passed  through  the  intes- 
tinal canal  of  the  "  Loeke,"  a  small  species  of  tiger  found 


142  OTHER  VARIETIES. 


in  Java,  which,  climbing  the  trees,  selects  the  ripest  and 
richest  of  the  berries,  feeds  on  them,  swallowing  both 
pulp  and  beans,  the  latter  being  left  in  the  jungle  and 
afterwards  collected  by  the  natives.  It  is  analogous  to 
the  "  Monkey  coffee  "  of  Brazil  and  the  "  Jackal  coffee  " 
of  India,  the  excellent  qualities  of  which  is  due  to  the 
chemical  process  which  the  beans  undergo  in  the 
stomach  of  the  animal  that  has  stolen  them,  the  appreci- 
ation of  such  stercoraceously  deposited  beans  by  the 
natives  being  an  undoubted  fact.  The  bean  is  large  and 
bold,  but  whitish  in  color,  heavy,  round  and  creamy  in 
body,  exceedingly  fragrant  and  aromatic  in  flavor  and 
not  excelled  by  that  of  any  coffee  grown  or  known  to 
commerce. 

At  the  time  of  shipment  all  Java  coffees  are  of  a  light- 
green  shade  unless — as  in  the  case  of  government  and 
other  coffees — they  have  been  previously  stored  for  the 
purpose  of  seasoning  or  to  await  a  better  market.  Dur- 
ing the  long  voyage  through  the  tropics  the  bean  gradu- 
ing  changes  to  a  deep-yellow,  and  finally  to  a  dark-brown, 
particularly  if  the  voyage  be  materially  lengthened,  as  it 
frequently  is ;  the  darker  the  color  becomes  the  more  val- 
uable the  coffee  on  arrival.  This  distinctive  feature  being 
characteristic  of  Java  coffees  only,  no  other  variety 
acquiring  this  color  except  by  artificial  means.  Color  is 
the  standard  of  value  and  the  principal  consideration  in 
appraising  its  price  in  the  American  market,  there  being 
a  wide  difference  made  in  the  values  of  "  Pale,"  "  Yellow  " 
and  "  Brown  "  Java  coffees  in  favor  of  the  latter.  As  stated 
before,  by  being  stored  for  a  certain  length  of  time,  Java 
coffees  improve  in  quality,  the  bean  becoming  browner 
and  the  flavor  more  mellow,  probably  in  the  same  manner 
as  wine.  The  moisture  evaporates  from  the  bean  and  the 
aciduous,  astringent  taste  of  the  young,   new  bean  is 


OTHER   VARIETIES.  14^ 


entirely  dissipated  and  lost  by  the  process,  which,  by 
becoming  throughly  dry  and  seasoned,  enhances  its 
value  commercially,  Yet  color  cannot  always  be  taken 
as  an  indication  of  age  or  genuineness,  as  much  of  the 
coffee  offered  under  the  head  of  Brown  Java  at  the 
present  time  is  nothing  more  than  Malang  and  other 
varieties  "  sweated,"  and  colored  by  a  steaming  process 
or  artificially  faced  with  a  preparation  of  kaolin  or  soap- 
stone.  Again  if  this  feature  of  turning  brown  with  time, 
were  always  an  indication  of  age,  it  may  be  taken  for 
granted  that  "  Brown  Javas,"  possessed  finer  roasting  and 
drinking  qualities,  than  the  "  Light "  or  Yellow-bean 
varieties,  but  it  is  an  acknowledged  fact  that  this  brown 
color,  even  when  natural,  neither  adds  or  detracts  from 
its  value  in  the  cup.  Practically  the  demand  for  "  Brown 
Java"  coffee  is  but  an  American  caprice,  enhancing  its 
commercial  value  from  two  to  three  cents  per  pound 
beyond  its  intrinsic  worth ;  this  caprice  being  also 
directly  responsible  for  the  immense  amount  of  other 
so-called  Java  coffees  that  are  annually  sweated  and 
colored  to  imitate  or  counterfeit  the  naturally  colored 
and  genuine  kinds.  While  in  Europe  the  yellow-colored 
coffees  are  preferred  to  the  brown,  being  quite  as  good, 
if  not  superior,  to  them,  and  less  liable  to  manipulation. 

Java  coffees  are  packed  for  export  in  bags  containing 
one  picul(i33  pounds)  when  intended  for  the  European 
markets,  and  in  mats  of  one-half  picul  for  the  American, 
the  latter  style  being  preferred  in  this  country.  In 
the  European  markets  they  are  classed  as  "  Green," 
"Pale-green,"  "Greenish"  and  "Extra-green"  when  new, 
but  as  "Yellow,"  "  Dark-yellow,"  "  Light-brown"  and 
"  Brown"  when  old,  grading  in  the  order  named.  While 
in  the  United  States  they  are  generally  classed  as 
"Light,"  "Yellow"  and  "Brown,"  according  to  color,  the 


'i44  SUMATRA    COFFEES. 


packages  being  usually  marked  with  the  initials  of  the 
importer,  underneath  which  is  a  letter  or  letters  denoting 
the  district  or  plantation  where  grown.  The  average 
annual  production  is  about  100,000,000  pounds,  of  which 
30,000,000  pounds  is  produced  on  private  plantations. 

Sumatra  known  to  the  Arabians  as  Srimata  ("  the 
happy  "),  lies  to  the  northwest  of  Java,  being  separated 
only  from  it  by  the  narrow  Sunda  strait,  and  is  much 
richer  in  products  than  the  latter  island.  The  coffee- 
plant  was  first  introduced  into  Sumatra  from  Java,  by  the 
Dutch,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  but 
its  cultivation  made  little  or  no  progress  on  that  island 
until  about  the  year  1800,  when  measures  were  taken  by 
the  government  to  promote  and  stimulate  its  production 
there,  since  which  period  there  has  been  a  rapid  increase 
in  its  output.  The  system  of  coffee  cultivation  is  nearly 
identical  with  that  in  Java,  each  native  family  being  fur- 
nished with  seed  by  the  government  on  condition  that 
they  keep  in  good  bearing  order  not  less  than  650  trees, 
the  crop,  "  if  up  to  standard,"  being  purchased  by  the 
government,  that  is,  taken,  at  an  arbitrarily  fixed  price, 
The  coffee,  after  being  inspected  and  accepted,  is  stored 
in  go-downs  or  warehouses  adjacent  to  the  districts  ol 
growth,  until  a  sufficient  quantity  has  been  collected, 
when  it  is  transported  to  the  ports  of  Padang  or  Ben- 
koolen,  where,  after  being  duly  advertised,  it  is  sold 
at  auction,  under  the  immediate  supervision  of  the 
officers  of  the  Dutch  government,  the  sales  being  held 
quarterly  during  the  months  of  March,  June,  September 
and  December,  as  in  Batavia  and  Amsterdam.  Latterly, 
however,  the  cultivation  of  coffee  in  Sumatra  has  been 
further  encouraged  by  the  government  leasing  or  selling 


SUMATRA    COFFEES.  1 45 

coffee-lands  to  independent  planters,  the  product  of  such 
plantations  being  termed  "  Free  coffee,"  in  contradistinc- 
tion to  that  raised  with  restrictions  by  the  natives,  such 
coffees  being  sold  only  by  tenders,  as  in  Java. 

Like  Java,  Sumatra  is  geographically  divided  into  a 
number  of  districts  politically  termed  "  Residencies,"  under 
Dutch  control,  the  coffee-producing  districts  comprising 
Painan,  Padang,  Palembang,  Ankola,  Ayerbanjies  and 
Mandheling,  grading  relatively  in  the  order  named. 

Painan — Is  a  medium-sized  bean  brownish  in  colot', 
hard,  solid  and  regular  in  appearance,  generally  clean 
and  well  prepared,  and  though  fairly  heavy  in  body  and 
pungent  in  flavor  is  yet  devoid  of  the  mellowness  and 
fragrance  which  characterize  Sumatra  sorts  in  gen- 
eral, but  is  still  superior  in  many  respects  to  a  number  of 
the  Java  growths. 

Padang — Known  to  trade  generally  as  "  Interior " 
from  being  raised  in  a  somewhat  desultory  manner  by 
the  natives  on  government  lands,  in  the  Padang  plateau 
or  highlands  of  the  interior,  which  furnishes  the  largest 
quantity.  Padang  or  Interior  coffees  are  not,  as  a  rule, 
as  stylish  or  uniform  as  the  other  district  growths,  owing  to 
careless  cultivation  and  the  primitive  methods  of  prepara- 
tion in  use  by  the  natives.  Yet,  notwithstanding  these 
drawbacks.  Interior  coffees  frequently  comprise  invoices 
rivalling  in  roasting  and  drinking  qualities  many  of  the 
regularly  cultivated  district  coffees,  and  at  all  times  far 
outrank  the  average  of  the  Java  product.  The  raw  bean 
as  a  rule  is  of  fair  proportions,  but  very  irregular  in 
general  appearance,  fairly  uniform,  and  though  lacking 
in  the  style  and  finer  qualities  of  the  plantation  grades, 
is  nevertheless  strong,  rich  and  fragrant  in  the  cup, 
possessing  a  characteristic  flavor  entirely  their  own. 


146  SUMATRA    COFFEES. 


Falembang — Differs  from  Padang  both  in  size,  style, 
color  and  drink,  being  smaller  in  bean,  lighter  in  color, 
but  stronger  and  more  pungent  in  liquor,  and  not,  as  a 
general  rule,  as  highly  valued,  except  when  the  crop  is 
good. 

Ankola — Ranks  among  the  finest  of  the  Sumatra 
sorts  in  point  of  size,  color  and  general  character,  the 
natural  bean  being  round,  full  and  firm,  rich  dark-brown 
in  color,  bright  and  mellow  in  liquor,  and  very  fragrant 
if  not  aromatic  in  flavor,  and  much  superior  in  every 
respect  to  the  best  of  the  Java  growths,  excepting  alone 
that  produced  in  the  Preanger  district. 

Ayerbanjies — Is  closely  allied  to  Ankola  in  all  its 
leading  features  of  size,  color,  structure  and  character, 
being  classed  commercially  as  on  an  entire  parity  with 
it,  commanding  the  same  price,  and  frequently  substituted 
for  it  when  the  former  is  scarce  or  difficult  to  obtain. 

MandheliDg — Is  without  exception  the  finest  of  the 
Sumatra  products,  and  is  valued  high  commercially,  not 
alone  for  its  undisputed  intrinsic  merits,  but  also  on 
account  of  the  comparatively  small  amount  produced, 
forming  only  about  ten  per  cent,  of  the  entire  product 
of  the  island.  The  bean  is  much  larger,  almost  as  large 
as  Liberian,  of  a  rich  dark,  natural-brown  color,  round, 
full,  well  developed  and  symmetrical  in  form,  very  stylish 
and  attractive  in  the  roasted  state,  and  equalling,  if  not 
positively  surpassing,  the  much-vaunted  Old  Government 
Java  itself. 

Lahat — Is  another  of  the  Sumatra  varieties,  but  not 
deserving  of  being  classed  with  them.  Being  of  lowland 
growth,  the  bean,  while  large,  is  flat  in  shape,  whitish  in 
color,  and  chaffy  in  substance,  approaching  a  Malang  in 


CELEBES    COFFEES.  1 47 


general  contour.  It  is  invariably  "  quakery "  in  the 
roast,  flat  in  liquor,  insipid  in  flavor,  or  more  correctly, 
almost  devoid  of  "  cup  "  qualities. 

Sumatra  coffees,  in  general,  possess  a  peculiarly  char- 
acteristic flavor  in  the  raw  or  natural  state,  described  by 
some  dealers  as  ''  musty,"  but  claimed  to  be  acquired  in 
transit  through  the  tropics,  the  coffee  sweating  in  the 
hold  of  the  vessel  during  the  long  voyage.  Certain  it  is, 
however,  that  this  mustiness,  or  whatever  it  may  be 
termed,  enhances  rather  than  detracts  from  the  value  or 
flavor  of  the  coffee.  And,  more  singular  to  add,  Sumatra 
forms  nine-tenths  of  the  coffee  imported  and  sold  in  the 
United  States  under  the  head  of  Java,  being  preferred  to 
the  latter  by  the  American  dealers  in  general,  on  account 
of  its  usually  dark-brown  color  and  distinctive  "  musty  " 
flavor.  The  annual  product,  like  that  of  all  other 
countries,  varies  materially  from  various  and  obvious 
causes,  both  in  quantity  and  quality,  the  average  annual 
export  being  about  20,000,000  pounds,  of  which  the 
United  States  takes  upwards  of  75  per  cent.,  the  product 
of  "  Free "  or  private  plantation  coffee  forming  about 
one-fifth  of  the  annual  yield.  It  is  packed  in  grass  mats, 
and  shipped  from  the  port  of  Padang,  when  purchased 
for  account  in  the  United  States,  and  from  Benkoolen, 
in  the  north,  when  intended  for  the  European  market. 

Are  grown  in  the  Dutch  island  of  that  name,  situated 
to  the  northeast  of  Java,  the  coffee  plant  being  intro- 
duced there  from  Java  as  far  back  as  1750,  but  "except 
where  Dutch  influence  was  felt  little  or  no  attention  was 
paid  to  it  by  the  native  races  until  about  1822,  when  it 
was  discovered  by  the  Dutch  rulers  that  the  soil  of  the 
mountain  sides  was  admirably  adapted  to  the  cultivation 


I 45  CELEBES    COFFEES. 


of  fine  coffees  and  a  system  established  which  stimulated 
the  native  chiefs  to  foster  the  industry  and  undertake  the 
management  of  coffee  plantations.  A  law  was  subse- 
quently enacted  by  the  Dutch  government,  however, 
compelling  the  native  princes  to  direct  the  total  anni- 
hilation of  the  cultivation  of  coffee  in  their  dominions 
and  to  secure  by  treaty  with  them  the  destruction  and 
confiscation  of  all  coffee  found  in  the  hands  of  the 
natives.  The  island  is  divided  into  thirteen  districts,  in 
nearly  all  of  which  more  or  less  coffee  is  produced. 
The  principal  coffees  being  known  to  commerce  as 
Menado,  Bonthyne  and  Macassar. 

Menado — Produced  in  the  district  of  Minnahassa 
situated  in  the  extreme  north  of  the  island,  is  not  only 
the  finest  grown  on  that  island,  but,  also  excels  the 
best  products  of  both  Java  and  Sumatra.  The  bean  is 
uniformly  large  and  regular,  of  a  rich  dark-yellow  color, 
solid  and  heavy  in  weight,  magnificent  in  the  roast, 
creamy  and  aromatic  to  a  high  degree  in  the  cup.  It  is 
claimed  to  possess  the  "  highest  standard  of  excellence," 
no  other  variety  containing  the  same  all-round  qualities 
of  size,  style,  color,  liquor,  flavor  and  aroma  to  the  same 
extent.  The  supply,  however,  is  very  limited,  and  is 
generally  shipped  to  Holland,  where  it  commands  a  price 
in  accordance  with  its  merits,  but  rarely  reaching  the 
United  States. 

Bonthyne — Is  medium  in  size,  flat  in  form,  reddish 
in  color,  inferior  in  roast  and  flavor,  and  not  a  desirable 
sort  by  any  means. 

Macassar — Is  the  poorest  of  the  Celebes  sorts,  closely 
resembling  Lahat  and  Malang,  and  on  a  parity  with 
them  in  appearance,  character  and  value. 


POLYNESIAN    COFFEES. 


149 


Singapore  Javas. — What  are  known  to  commerce 
as  "  Singapore  Java  Coffees  "  are  not  produced  on  that 
island,  which,  although  lying  directly  in  the  coffee  zone, 
produces  little  or  no  coffee,  except  small  quantities  of  the 
Liberian  species,  which  has  recently  been  introduced  there. 
90  per  cent,  of  the  coffee  shipped  from  Singapore  is 
chiefly  composed  of  the  products  of  Bali,  Timour,  the 
Mollucas  and  smaller  Sunda  islands,  its  position  making 
it  the  only  entrepot  for  the  commerce  of  the  entire  archi- 
pelago. The  coffees  are  usually  small  in  size,  reddish 
in  color,  irregular  in  grade  and  inferior  in  quality,  being 
generally  produced  from  wild  or  carelessly  cultivated 
plants,  and  also  possessing  a  peculiar  spicy  or  "  peppery  " 
flavor,  said  to  be  contracted  from  being  imported  with 
cargoes  of  pepper,  but  more  probably  from  being  grown 
in  the  vicinity  of  pepper  plantations  in  the  Spice  islands. 
Formerly  these  coffees  were  marketed  under  their  true 
titles,  but  as  their  character  became  known  they  were 
palmed  off  as  Padang  and  other  district  Javas,  to  the 
detriment  of  the  latter. 

The  systematic  cultivation  of  the  Liberian  species  of 
coffee  was  commenced  about  ten  years  ago  in  Siam, 
Malacca  and  many  of  the  smaller  islands  of  Malaysia, 
where  it  was  found  to  prosper  so  well  at  tirst  that  the 
the  demand  for  Liberian  seed  became  very  great.  But 
after  a  fair  trial  it  does  not  seem  to  have  been  a  great 
success,  what  little  is  produced  in  these  new  districts 
being  generally  classed  as  "J^hore  Liberian  "  coffee. 

Embrace  Phillipine,  Borneo,  Guinea,  Fijian,  Samoan, 
Hawaiian,  Australian,  New  Zealand,  and  other  islands 
in  the  South  Pacific  Ocean. 


150  POLYNESIAN    COFFEES. 

Fhillipine  Coffees. — Opinions  differ  as  to  whether 
the  coffee  plant  is  indigenous  to  the  Fhillipine  Islands  or 
only  exotic  there,  some  authorities  declaring  that  it  was 
first  brought  there  by  Spanish  priests  from  the  Malay. 
Others  again  claiming  that  the  plant  was  found  in 
a  wild  state  in  the  island  of  Luzon  prior  to  its 
introduction,  but  that  the  natives,  being  ignorant  of  its 
properties,  allowed  the  fruit  to  decay  on  the  trees.  Be 
this  as  it  may,  coffee  thrives  there  remarkably  well,  the 
product  possessing  a  peculiarly  rich  flavor,  for  which 
it  is  highly  esteemed  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  and, 
although  it  is  by  no  means  well  prepared  or  uniform,  the 
worst  grades  bring  a  higher  price  there  than  the  Java 
growths,  the  value  on  the  spot  exceeding  the  current 
rates  for  the  latter  in  the  foreign  markets,  and  is  gener- 
ally classed  as  "  Luzon,"  "  Manilla"  and  "  Zamboango," 
from  the  ports  of  shipment. 

Luzon — Is  a  small-bean  variety,  hard  and  flinty  in 
texture,  rich  and  aromatic  in  the  infusion,  but  poorly  or 
indifferently  cleaned  or  prepared,  for  which  causes  it  is 
not  as  well  appreciated  as  it  deserves. 

Manilla — Is  principally  produced  on  the  islands  of 
Indan,  Laguna,  Batangas  and  Cavite,  its  price  on  the  spot 
varying  from  twenty  to  twenty-two  dollars  per  picul. 
The  bean  is  medium  in  size,  regular  in  form,  and  pale- 
green  in  color,  perfect  in  roast  and  aromatic  in  flavor. 

Zamboango — Comes  chiefly  from  Mindano  and  the 
southern  islands  generally.  The  bean  is  much  larger 
than  that  of  Manilla,  yellowish-white  in  color,  but  some- 
what flabby  in  texture,  and  containing  much  extraneous 
matter,  being  poorly  prepared,  while  the  liquor  is  thin, 
flat  and  apt  to  be  wild  or  "  grassy  "  in  flavor. 


POLYNESIAN   COFFEES.  I5I 

Recently  the  natives  have  planted  patches  of  coffee 
in  the  islands  of  Cebu  and  Bohol,  small  quantities  of 
which  have  appeared  in  the  European  markets,  some  also 
being  secured  from  the  islands  of  Yligan  and  Amboyana. 
The  area  of  land  under  coffee  cultivation  in  the 
Phillipines,  and  the  amount  of  coffee  raised  annually  is 
not  definitely  known,  as  the  plantations  are  widely  scat- 
tered over  the  islands  of  the  archipelago,  but  is  usually 
estimated  at  about  10,000,000  pounds.  The  largest  plan- 
tations are  situated  in  the  province  of  Batangas  in  the 
island  of  Luzon,  but  considerable  coffee  is  also  produced 
independently  by  the  natives  in  small  plots  which  they 
sell  to  speculators,  who  hold  it  until  they  make  up  a  fair- 
sized  shipment,  collected  in  this  manner,  from  the  neigh- 
boring islands.  The  increase  in  production,  however,  has 
been  marked  during  the  past  five  years,  from  about 
10,000,000  pounds  in  1888,  to  over  16,000,000  pounds 
in  1893,  about  6,000,000  pounds  coming  direct  to  this 
country,  the  remainder  being  taken  by  Spain,  France 
and  Continental  Europe  generally. 

Borneo  Coffee. — The  Liberian  plant  has  been  recently 
introduced  into  Borneo  on  a  small  scale,  where  it  has 
been  found  to  thrive  well  but  producing  a  bean  greatly 
modified  in  size,  color  and  flavor  of  the  original  species. 
It  is  much  smaller,  not  as  convex  or  brown,  but  smoother 
and  more  pleasing,  if  anything,  in  the  drink. 

Guinea  Coffee. — Rapid  strides  are  being  made  in  the 
cultivation  of  coffee  in  New  Guinea,  the  product  ranking 
with  the  average  of  the  mild  grades  of  the  older 
countries. 

Samoan  Coffee. — The  coffee  plant  has  been  in  exist- 
ence here  for  some  years,  and  though  thriving  luxu- 
riantly, and  the  soil  and  climate  being  well  adapted,  it 


152  POLYNESIAN    COFFEES. 

has   never  been  scientifically  treated,  and   as  a  conse- 
quence is  not  as  yet  an  article  of  commerce. 

Fijian  Coffee,  —  Some  coffee  of  fair  quality  was 
exported  from  these  islands  as  early  as  1877,  the  indus- 
try making  but  little  progress  there  since  that  time,  not- 
withstanding the  fact  that  the  islands  possess  abundant 
facilities  for  the  production  of  a  superior  variety.  Several 
of  the  most  wealthy  and  enterprising  planters  are  now, 
however,  engaged  in  its  cultivation,  and  it  is  expected 
soon  to  become  one  of  the  chief  exports  of  those  islands. 
The  bean  is  medium  sized,  green  in  color,  as  with  all 
new  coffees,  and,  owing  to  improper  curing,  somewhat 
grassy  in  flavor. 

Hawaiian  Coffee — Coffee  has  been  cultivated  in 
Hawaii  and  other  islands  of  that  group  with  consider- 
able success  for  many  years  past,  although  the  produc- 
tion has  varied  greatly  there.  The  first  plantations 
formed  in  the  island  were  only  a  few  feet  above  sea-level, 
to  which  fact  is  attributed  the  failure  or  rather  slow  pro- 
gress of  the  industry  there.  New  plantations  at  higher 
elevations  have  recently  been  established,  from  which 
better  returns  are  expected.  They  are  classified,  and 
known  to  trade  as  Puna,  Hilo,  Kona  and  Hamakua,  of 
which  Kona  is  the  finest,  the  others  varying  in  size,  color 
and  flavor.  The  exports  have  declined  from  415,000 
pounds  in  1870,  which  in  1885  fell  to  as  low  as  1,675 
pounds,  but  for  1892  it  had  again  increased  to  13,000 
pounds,  the  total  exports  since  1881  amounting  to 
215,782  pounds. 

Australian  Coffee. — Coffee  has  been  found  to  pros- 
per well  in  Queensland,  a  yield  of  over  600  pounds 
per  acre  being  obtained  there  so  far  and  selling  in  Bris- 
bane at  twenty  cents   per  pound,  the  smaller  farmers 


AiMERICAN    COFFEES.  153 


finding  it  paying  better  than  corn  or  potatoes.  Efforts 
are  also  being  made  to  introduce  the  industry  into  New- 
Zealand  and  other  of  the  Antipodean  colonies.  This 
list  does  not  by  any  means  exhaust  the  possible  spots 
or  sections  in  Polynesia  where  coffee  is  or  may  be 
grown  with  the  greatest  advantage,  touching  only  the 
chief  centres  of  the  industry,  and  as  suggesting  some 
eligible  sites  for  the  extension  of  the  planting  enterprise. 
Fair  quantities  of  coffee  being  also  produced  in  the 
Hebrides,  Society,  Friendly  and  many  other  of  the 
island  groups  in  the  South  Pacific  Ocean. 

As  previously  stated,  the  history  of  the  first  introduc- 
tion of  the  coffee  plant  into  the  American  continent  is  as 
romantic  as  it  is  interesting.  In  17 14  the  magistrates  of 
Amsterdam  presented  to  Louis  XIV  a  specimen  of  the 
coffee  tree,  which  was  carefully  nursed  in  one  of  the 
botanic  gardens  of  Paris,  until  it  eventually  yielded  fruit. 
In  17 1 7  the  French  king  sent  several  of  the  shoots  from 
it  to  the  island  of  Martinique  in  care  of  one  DeClieux,  an 
ofificer  in  the  French  naval  service.  The  voyage  being 
long  and  stormy,  the  ship's  crew  were  reduced  to  a  short 
allowance  of  water;  for  lack  of  which  essential  all  but  one 
of  the  young  plants  died.  DeClieux  to  save  this  remain- 
ing slip  shared  with  it  his  own  scanty  allowance,  event- 
ually succeeding  in  bringing  it  safely  to  its  destination. 
From  this  single  plant  thus  heroically  preserved,  accord- 
ing to  De  Tour,  was  propagated  the  numerous  varieties 
now  to  be  found  in  the  West  Indies,  Mexico,  Central, 
and  the  northern  countries  of  South  America.  And 
where,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  Coffee  is  indigenous 
to  the  Old  World  it  has  evidently  found  its  true  habitat 
in  the  New,  its  production  at  the  present  being  many 


154  MEXICAN   COFFEES. 


times  greater  than  in  the  East ;  its  cultivation  also  con- 
stantly and  immensely  increasing  there. 

The  climatic  and  topographic  conditions  of  the  Ameri- 
can continent  are  pre-eminently  adapted  to  the  cultiva- 
tion of  fine  coffees,  the  great  mass  of  coffee  lands,  con- 
sisting of  an  elevated  plateau  formed  by  an  expansion  of 
the  Cordilleras  from  which  terraced  slopes  descend  with 
a  more  or  less  rapid  inclination  towards  both  the  Atlantic 
and  Pacific  oceans.  This  vast  tract  comprises  one  of 
the  richest  and  most  varied  zones  of  the  world,  for  while 
its  geographical  position  secures  to  it  a  tropical  vegeta- 
tion, the  rapid  differences  of  elevation  which  character- 
ize it  afford  it  the  advantages  of  more  temperate  climates, 
thus  combining  within  its  borders  an  almost  unparalleled 
exuberance  and  multiplicity  of  natural  products,  lands 
favorable  to  the  cultivation  of  coffee  being  found  not 
only  on  the  entire  Andean  range  but  also  on  its  sea  and 
land  slopes  from  Mexico  to  Paraguay.  While  in  addition 
to  these  immense  stretches  of  mountain  range,  the  plant 
is  also  found  to  flourish  in  the  numerous  valleys  and 
plains  of  the  interior  of  the  continent,  and  wherever  the 
great  tablelands  of  the  Cordilleras  are  sufficiently  de- 
pressed to  reach  the  level  of  tropical  vegetation. 

American  Coffees  are  geographically  divided  into 
Mexican,  West  Indian,  Central  and  South  American,  and, 
as  with  the  products  of  the  Old  World,  the  commercial  divi- 
sions and  subdivisions  of  the  numerous  varieties  are  based 
rather  on  the  districts  of  production  and  the  ports  of 
export  than  upon  any  great  material  difference  in  the 
appearance  or  even  quality  of  the  various  kinds  produced. 

:ivi:e^3::ioa.:v    oofm^e>e>». 

It  is  also  a  fact  not  generally  known  to  Americans  that 
at  our  very  doors  there  exists  the  climatic  conditions 


MEXICAN  COFFEES.  155 


and  capacity  for  the  production  of  all  the  coffee  that  is 
required  for  consumption  in  the  United  States,  the  area 
adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  coffee  in  Mexico  being 
almost  illimitable,  and  bounded  only  by  the  extent  of 
land  brought  under  cultivation.  Its  suitability  as  a 
coffee-producing  country  has  been  tested  by  more  than 
fifty  years  of  experience,  and  that  it  has  not  heretofore 
assumed  first  place  in  point  of  production,  exportation, 
and  the  rank  to  which  the  merit  of  its  product  entitles 
it,  is  to  be  attributed  to  the  same  causes  that  have  so 
long  retarded  its  other  agricultural  and  commercial 
developments.  But  while  coffee  is  chiefly  produced  for 
export  only  in  the  States  of  Vera  Cruz,  Oaxaca,  Micha- 
coan,  Colima,  Chiapas,  Jalisco  and  Tabasco,  excellent 
coffee  is  also  grown  on  the  plains  of  the  interior  as  far 
north  as  Sinaloa,  as  well  as  in  the  coast  States  from 
Yucatan  to  Tamaulipas.  They  are  commercially  classi- 
fied as  Oaxaca,  Cordova,  Urupuan,  Tepic,  Tabasco,  Soco- 
nusco  and  Caracolillo,  varying  materially  in  size,  style 
and  quality. 

Oaxaca — Is  a  "  Sierra,"  or  mountain  coffee,  large,  bold 
and  blue  when  new,  but  bleaching  with  time.  It  is  one 
of  the  best  of  the  Mexican  varieties,  being  regular  in 
roast,  heavy  in  body,  strong  and  rich  in  flavor  and  aroma. 

Cordova. — Grown  in  the  State  of  Vera  Cruz,  is 
usually  a  large  yellow-bean  coffee,  from  which  fact  it  is 
sometimes  termed  "  Mexican  Java."  It  makes  a  hand- 
some roast,  yielding  a  round,  full  liquor,  approaching  to 
that  of  a  fine  Maracaibo  or  medium  Java. 

Urupuan — Produced  in  the  State  of  Michacoan  is 
also  a  mountain  grade,  rather  small  in  size,  greenish- 
blue  in  color  but  somewhat  irregular  in  appearance,  not 


S56  MEXICAN  COFFEES. 


being  well  prepared.  In  flavor  it  is,  however,  high  and 
fragrant,  approximating  most  to  that  of  a  Plantation 
Ceylon. 

Tepic, — or  "  Mexican  Mocha,"  grown  in  the  State 
of  Jalisco  is  claimed  to  be  a  transplant  of  the  Arabian 
berry,  which  has  by  careful  and  scientific  cuhivation 
been  so  improved  in  flavor  and  aroma  as  to  rival,  if  not 
actually  excel,  the  product  of  the  parent  plant.  The 
natural  bean  is  exceedingly  small,  hard  and  **  flinty  "  in 
texture,  steel-blue  in  color,  faultless  in  roast,  rich  and 
creamy  in  body  and  highly  aromatic  in  flavor.  The  sup- 
ply being  limited  it  is  rarely  exported,  being  principally 
consumed  in  the  district  of  production,  where  it  commands 
a  very  high  price,  selling  on  the  spot  for  as  much  as  one 
dollar  per  pound. 

Tabasco — Is  a  coast-grown  coflee  cultivated  in  the 
hot,  moist  low-lands  of  the  Campeachy  gulf,  and  is  the 
poorest  of  the  Mexican  varieties.  The  bean  is  of  a 
sickly-green  hue,  medium  in  size,  and  moist  or 
"  spongy  "  in  substance,  bitter  and  astringent  in  flavor, 
and  taken  altogether  a  most  undesirable  sort  for  any 
purpose. 

SoconusCO — Produced  in  Chiapas,  close  to  the  rich 
coflee  lands  of  Guatemala  is  another  high-grade  coflee, 
ranking  among  the  finest  of  the  Mexican  varieties.  It  is 
a  large,  mature  bean,  varying  in  color,  according  to  age, 
from  a  bluish-green  to  a  pale-yellow,  full  and  round  in 
body,  ripe  and  mellow  in  flavor  as  a  rule. 

Golima — Raised  on  the  west  coast  is  a  medium-sized 
bean,  flat  in  form,  fairly  solid,  but  varying  in  color  from 
greenish  to  pale,  even  in  roast,  rather  round  in  liquor 
and  pleasing  in  flavor,  and  generally  shipped  to  the 
Pacific  States. 


WEST  INDIAN  COFFEES.  I57 

Caracolillo — or  "  Mexican  pea-berry,"  is  a  concave- 
convex  bean,  grown  on  the  new  wood  at  the  end  of 
branches  of  trees  that  are  pruned  year  after  year ;  but 
though  not  confined  to  any  particular  species,  such  trees 
yield  almost  entirely  male  or  pea-berry  coffee,  being  the 
only  instance  on  record,  and  is  considered  the  fanciest 
grade  grown  in  Mexico. 

Mexico  possesses  more  and  better  coffee  lands  than 
many  other  countries  where  it  is  now  extensively  grown, 
a  small  proportion  of  which  only  are  under  cultivation. 
The  popularity  of  the  product  increases  as  it  becomes 
better  known,  besides  being  the  nearest  and  most  accessi- 
ble coffee  producing  country  to  the  United  States,  the 
largest  and  best  coffee  market  in  the  world.  More  atten- 
tion is  now  being  directed  to  the  cultivation  of  coffee  in 
Mexico,  however,  by  both  natives  and  foreigners  than 
has  ever  before  been  given  to  the  industry  in  that  country. 
Native  Mexicans  are  quietly,  but  steadily  laying  out  new 
coffee  plantations  or  enlarging  and  reviving  old  ones 
and  many  large  tracts  of  land  adapted  to  the  growth  of 
coffee  have  recently  been  purchased  there  by  foreigners 
Vv'ith  that  object.  But  while  Mexico  practically  has  no 
limit  to  her  production  of  coffee,  yet  the  average  annual 
exports  amounts  only  to  about  10,000,000  pounds,  the 
bulk  of  which  is  shipped  to  France,  where  it  is  graded 
as  "  Verde,"  or  Green,  and  "  Blanco,"  or  White,  the 
United  States  receiving  the  largest  proportion  of  the 
remainder. 

The  West  India  Islands  at  the  beginning  of  the  present 
century  were  noted  for  the  extensive  quantity  and  excel- 
lent quality  of  their  coffee  product,  ranking  at  that  period 
with  the  largest  coffee-growing  countries  of  the  world. 


158  WEST   INDIAN   COFFEES. 

Its  cultivation  has  rapidly  and  materially  declined  there 
in  recent  years,  still  continuing  to  do  so  at  a  dispropor- 
tionate rate ;  the  decrease  since  the  emancipation  of  the 
negroes  almost  amounting  to  abandonment.  But  while 
commonly  attributed  in  a  great  measure  to  the  ravages 
of  the  blight,  already  described,  it  is  more  evidently 
traceable  to  social  influences  and  a  faulty  system  of  cul- 
tivation. Latterly,  however,  attempts  are  being  made  to 
restore  the  industry  to  something  like  its  former  impor- 
tance by  new  and  improved  methods  of  culture,  so  that 
it  remains  to  be  seen  what  art  can  do  to  combat  the 
difficulty.  They  are  classified  in  trade  as  Cuban,  Jamaica, 
Haytian,  San  Domingo,  Porto  Rico,  Trinidad,  Dominica, 
Martinique  and  Guadeloupe. 

Cuban — Though  at  one  period  one  of  the  largest 
coffee-producing  countries  in  proportion  to  its  size,  yield- 
ing nearly  50,000,000  pounds  annually,  Cuba  now  ranks 
lowest  in  the  scale,  not  raising  sufficient  to  supply  the 
home  demand,  its  cultivation  being  replaced  in  that  island 
by  that  of  sugar  and  tobacco.  The  districts  most  noted  for 
the  richness  and  excellence  of  their  coffees  are  situated  on 
the  Sierra  Maistra  range,  in  the  vicinity  of  Vuelta  Abajo, 
as  well  as  in  the  districts  of  Alquizar  and  San  Marcos,  and 
from  the  fact  that  these  latter  are  among  the  oldest  coffee- 
producing  sections  on  the  island,  their  product  bears  a 
high  reputation  for  fragrance  and  excellence.  But  the 
coffee  grown  in  the  mountain  district  of  Guantanamo  is 
now  considered  the  finest,  its  cultivation  there  being  on 
the  increase,  while  decreasing  rapidly  in  the  former  dis- 
tricts. The  bean  of  what  little  is  produced  on  that  island 
is  large  in  size,  whitish  in  color  and  peculiar  in  form, 
somewhat  resembling  a  ''  male  "  or  pea-berry.  In  roast 
and  drink  it  is  superior  to  many  of  the  mild  grades,  with 
which  it  is  usually  ranked. 


WEST    INDIAN    COFFEES.  I59 

Jamaica — The  coffee  plant  was  first  introduced  into 
Jamaica  in  1730,  a  special  act  of  Parliament  being  passed 
m  that  year  to  encourage  and  foster  its  cultivation. 
The  island  is  famous  for  the  production  of  fine  coffees, 
those  grown  on  the  regularly  conducted  plantations 
rivalling  the  best  products  of  any  country.  It  is  divided 
into  two  kinds,  ''Blue  Mountain"  and  "Plain-grown," 
the  latter  being  graded  commercially  as  "  Ordinary  "  in 
contradistinction  to  the  former,  which  is  always  choice. 
"  Blue  Mountain  Jamaica"  is  a  bold,  well-developed  bean, 
bluish  almost  translucent  in  cast,  very  solid  and  attractive 
in  style  and  appearance,  and  developing  a  characteristic 
peculiarity^  that  of  opening  and  exposing  a  whitish  hull 
or  silver-skin  down  the  furrow  when  roasted,  while  the 
liquor  is  heavy,  round,  full  and  rich,  fragrant  and  aromatic 
to  a  high  degree.  It  is  packed  for  export  in  barrels  and 
large  casks,  the  bulk  of  the  choicer  grades  being  com- 
pulsorily  exported  to  England,  where  it  commands  a 
higher  figure  relatively  than  Java  and  other  equally  fine 
coffees.  Nearly  all  the  coffee  plantations  on  the  Island 
of  Jamaica  being  mortgaged  to  London  brokers  and 
dealers,  the  contracts  containing  a  clause  or  stipulation 
compelling  the  planter  to  dispose  of  their  crops  through 
the  holders,  who,  by  the  harsh  terms  of  the  contract,  not 
only  secure  the  best  of  the  product  and  the  interest  on 
the  money  advanced  but  also  the  commissions  or  profits 
on  its  sale. 

"Ordinary"  or  plain-grown  Jamaica  is  a  large,  whitish, 
flat  and  broken-bean  coffee,  moist  or  spongy  in  the  raw 
state,  and  invariably  stony  and  hully,  being  imperfectly 
cleaned.  The  roast  is  usually  either  "quakery"  or  "nig- 
gery,"  the  liquor  is  strong,  almost  to  rankness,  and  apt 
to  be  "wild"  or  "grassy"  in  flavor,  more  particularly 
when   new,   approximating   close   to   a   Travancore   or 


l6o  WEST  INDIAN  COFFEES. 

Native  Ceylon,  to  which  coffees  it  bears  a  striking  resem- 
blance in  character  and  value.  It  is  put  up  in  large 
coarse  bags,  averaging  about  200  pounds,  and  shipped 
principally  to  the  United  States. 

Haytian  Coflfees. — Coffee  is  claimed  to  have  been  first 
introduced  into  this  island  by  wild  fowl,  being  sterioca- 
ceously  deposited  there  after  the  manner  of  Monkey, 
Jackal  and  Tiger-cat  coffees.  Its  systematic  cultiva- 
tion was  first  begun  there  about  1740  by  the  French,  the 
industry  flourishing  during  the  French  regime,  but  rapidly 
declining  after  the  island  passed  under  native  rule.  It  is 
cultivated  there  now  by  natives  exclusively,  principally 
in  the  districts  of  Jeremie,  Jacmel  and  Gonaives,  by  which 
terms  it  is  more  familiarly  known  to  commerce.  They 
are  generally  large,  flat,  white  and  broken  in  appearance, 
invariably  stony  and  stemy,  being  but  crudely  cultivated 
and  prepared  for  market.  Yet,  notwithstanding  these 
defects,  they  are  elegant  roasters,  yielding  an  excellent 
liquor,  full  of  snap  and  rich  in  flavor,  but  owing  to  its 
indifferent  treatment  its  commercial  value  is  reduced  far 
below  its  intrinsic  worth.  The  coffee  itself  being  mild 
and  pleasant,  added  to  its  low  price,  would  commend  it 
to  many  consumers  were  it  but  properly  cleaned  and 
graded.  Usually  all  of  it  received  into  this  country  is 
reshipped  to  France,  Belgium  and  Germany,  where  it  is 
picked  over  by  hand,  the  consumers  in  these  countries 
not  being  as  exacting  as  regards  cleaning  and  grading  as 
in  this  country.  The  production  of  coffee  in  Hayti  has 
fallen  from  over  80,000,000  pounds  in  1789  to  less  than 
50,000,000  at  the  present  time,  although  the  island  offers 
an  excellent  and  extensive  field  for  the  industry,  which, 
it  is  hoped,  will  be  taken  advantage  of  as  soon  as  the 
country  devotes  its  energies  more  closely  to  the  improve- 
ment of  its  internal  affairs  ai;id  the  encouragement  of  capital. 


WEST   INDIAN    COFFEES.  l6l 


San  Domingo — Known  to  trade  as  "  Cape,"  is  grown 
on  the  same  island  to  the  west  of  Hayti,  and  approximates 
very  closely  in  size,  style  and  color  to  ordinary  Jamaica 
— so  much  so  that  it  is  frequently  substituted  and  sold  in 
lieu  of  it.  Its  cultivation  being  also  principally  conducted 
by  natives,  who  are  so  indifferent  to  its  proper  preparation 
for  market — machinery  being  employed  only  to  a  very 
limited  extent — that  most  of  the  product  is  shipped  in  a 
stony  and  otherwise  dirty  condition,  thus  reducing  its 
value  commercially  far  below  its  intrinsic  worth. 

Porto  Rico — Is  grown  chiefly  in  the  province  of 
Ponce,  small  quantities  being  also  produced  in  the  dis- 
tricts of  Arecibo,  Mayaguez  and  Aguadilla.  The  bean 
is  regular  and  well  formed,  but  varying  in  color  from 
yellow  to  greenish,  the  quality  is  fairly  good,  and  though, 
not  well  known  in  the  American  market  is  much  valued 
in  Spain  and  the  European  markets  generally. 

Dominica — Known  to  trade  as  "Souffriere,"  from 
the  district  of  growth,  is  a  peculiarly  shaped  bean,  said 
to  be  produced  from  Mocha  seed,  but  much  inferior  to 
the  product  of  the  parent  plant.  From  the  effects  of 
Negro  emancipation  and  the  coffee  blight,  the  annual 
production  of  Dominica  has  fallen  from  over  2,000,000 
pounds  to  almost  nominal. 

Trinidad — The  coffee  export  from  Trinidad  is  only 
about  25,000  pounds  yearly,  yet  there  is  scarcely  any 
part  of  the  island  where  coffee  culture  may  not  be 
profitably  undertaken,  particularly  in  the  districts  of 
Aripo  and  Maracas,  where  the  conditions  are  unsur- 
passed. Both  the  Arabian  and  Liberian  species  are 
grown  there,  the  product  being  commercially  divided 
into  "  Large "  and  "  Small "  and  generally  shipped  to 
Spain. 


Ct-»  CENTRAL   AMERICAN   COFFEES. 

Martinique. — Although  originally  introduced  into 
the  New  World  through  Martinique,  which  island  was 
for  a  long  time  celebrated  for  the  quantity  and  quality  of 
its  coffee,  it  produces  very  little  comparatively  at  the 
present  day.  In  fact,  barely  sufficient  to  supply  the 
home  demand,  the  excess  going  to  France,  where  it  is 
highly  esteemed  for  its  intrinsic  merits.  The  bean  is 
exceedingly  small,  hard  and  flinty,  somewhat  resembling 
that  of  a  Mocha,  bluish-gray  in  color,  heavy  and  round 
in  body,  pungent  and  piquant  in  flavor,  and  grading 
with  the  finest  of  the  milder  sorts. 

Guadeloupe. — More  or  less  coffee  is  produced  in 
Guadeloupe  and  other  of  the  smaller  islands  of  the 
Antilles,  but  chiefly  to  supply  the  home  demand,  and, 
with  the  exception  of  the  former,  are  almost  entirely 
unknown  to  commerce.  It  is  grown  principally  in  the 
districts  of  Bonfleur  and  Hatrant,  what  little  is  exported 
being  shipped  to  France,  where  it  is  valued  high  com- 
mercially for  its  superior  drinking  qualities.  A  century 
ago  the  island  exported  nearly  8,000,000  pounds,  being 
now  reduced  to  less  than  500,000.  The  total  annual  pro- 
duction of  the  entire  West  India  Islands  not  exceeding 
90,000,000  pounds  at  the  present  time,  but  strenuous 
efforts  are  being  made  to  increase  the  product. 

OE:iVTI«A.I:v    A.I^E^KtIOA.IV    OOFM^E5E^«. 

Coffee  forms  the  principal  staple  of  the  Central  Ameri- 
can States,  the  soil  and  climate  being  eminently  adapted 
to  the  cultivation  of  fine  coffees,  but,  as  in  all  other 
countries,  the  best  grades  are  produced  on  the  upland  or 
mountain  slopes.  In  some  of  these  countries,  however, 
the  most  primitive  system  of  cultivation  and  elementary 
methods  of  preparing  are  still  in  use,  while  in  others, 


CENTRAL  AMERICAN    COFFEES.  163 

notably  Guatemala,  the  most  improved  modern  machinery 
is  employed.  They  embrace  Guatemala,  Nicaragua, 
San  Salvador,  Honduras  and  Costa  Rica  coffees. 

Guatemala — Produces  the  finest,  ranking  in  intrinsic 
merit  with  that  of  any  variety  grown — more  particularly 
that  grown  in  the  now  famous  Coban  district,  in  Vera  Paz, 
which  rivals,  if  it  does  not  actually  excel,  all  other  varieties 
in  size,  style,  roasting  and  drinking  qualities.  The  aver- 
age bean  is  large,  bold  and  symmetrical  in  form,  of  a 
translucent  blue  cast,  and  exceedingly  handsome  in  general 
appearance,  making  a  perfect  roast,  yielding  a  rich  brown 
liquor,  sparkling  and  aromatic  in  the  cup.  The  next 
best  coffees  in  Guatemala  are  those  grown  in  the  "  Costa 
Chica"  and  "Costa  Grande,"  a  prolongation  of  the  chain 
of  mountains  crossing  the  southern  boundary  of  Mexico. 
The  production  of  coffee  has  more  than  doubled  in 
Guatemala  in  the  past  ten  years,  the  price  during  the 
same  period  being  more  than  quadrupled.  The  total 
product  for  1892  was  over  700,000  quintals,  representing 
a  total  value  of  16,000,000  dollars.  The  extraordinary 
high  price  of  coffee  now  ruling  has  led  to  a  transforma- 
tion of  the  country,  small  land-owners  who  heretofore 
realized  from  their  crops  scarcely  sufficient  for  working 
expenses,  now  find  themselves  with  considerable  capital, 
with  which  they  improve  and  enlarge  their  plantations. 
These  results  have  led  to  unbridled  speculation,  large 
companies  being  formed  there  for  still  increasing  the  area 
and  yield  of  coffee,  every  speculator  and  small  trader 
who  has  been  enabled  to  save  a  little  money,  aban- 
doning his  former  occupation,  turning  his  attention  to 
coffee  growing.  This  condition  may  last  as  long  as  the 
present  high  prices  of  coffee  continues,  but  a  reaction 
may  occur  at  any  time,  when   complete    ruin   will   be 


164  CENTRAL  AMERICAN   COFFEES. 

the  natural  consequence  to  the  suddenly  increased 
number  of  producers,  of  which  the  reflex  cannot 
be  but  felt  in  the  economic  conditions  of  the  country. 
Land  which  was  but  a  few  years  ago  uninhabited,  has 
been  suddenly  converted  into  smiling  and  well-cultivated 
coffee  plantations,  towns  and  villages  long  in  decay 
have  risen  around  them  as  if  by  magic  and  are  steadily 
increasing  in  wealth.  New  roads  to  facilitate  transporta- 
tion to  the  ports  are  being  constructed,  commercial 
transactions  are  multiplied,  the  revenue  of  the  country  is 
increasing,  public  credits  re-established  on  a  sounder 
basis,  and  what  was  but  a  short  time  ago  a  poor,  declin- 
ing and  almost  ruined  State  has  been  suddenly,  by  the 
cultivation  of  coffee,  converted  into  a  rich  and  prosperous 
commonwealth. 

Nicaragua — Is  a  medium-sized  regular-formed  bean, 
solid  and  heavy  in  the  hand,  greyish-yellow  in  color, 
what  is  technically  termed  "  foxy,"  and  a  smooth  roaster. 
The  drinking  qualities,  however,  are  only  fair,  the  liquor, 
while  heavy,  being  devoid  of  snap  and  fragrance,  approxi- 
mating more  to  a  Rio  in  flavor. 

Salvador — Is  allied  to  Nicaragua  in  appearance  and 
character,  and  classed  the  same,  but  possesses  much  finer 
roasting  and  drinking  properties.  The  natural  bean  of 
the  finer  grades  is,  if  anything,  better  developed  and 
more  uniform,  while  the  poorer  ones  are  very  uneven, 
broken  and  "  mottled  "  in  appearance ;  the  liquor  thin  in 
body  and  lacking  aroma. 

Honduras — Is  a  yellowish,  heavy-bean  coffee,  assum- 
ing a  rich  straw  color  with  age,  and  having  an  attractive 
appearance  in  the  hand.  As  a  general  rule  it  roasts  even 
and  smooth,  becoming  a  rich  brown  color  when  parched ; 


VENEZUELAN   COFFEES.  1 65 

the  liquor,  while  thin,  gives  out  a  pleasant  odor^  resem- 
bling that  exhaled  by  cocoa  or  chocolate,  said  to  be 
acquired  from  being  grown  in  close  proximity  to  cocoa 
plantations. 

'  Costa  Rica — Is  one  of  the  most  deceptive  coffees 
grown,  the  raw  bean  being  large  and  bold  in  style,  a  rich 
pea-green  in  color,  uniform  and  shapely;  but  is  invariably 
what  is  termed  "  hidey,"  which  is  in  reality  due  to  the 
soil  in  which  it  is  grown,  and,  while  it  makes  an  almost 
perfect  roast,  is  *'  grassy  "  and  bitter  in  the  infusion,  par- 
ticularly when  roasted  for  any  length  of  time,  it  becomes 
sour  and  unpalatable,  making  its  purchase  at  all  times 
risky. 

Comprise  Venezuelan,  Colombian,  Equador,  Bolivian, 
Guiana,  Peruvian,  Paraguayan  and  Brazilian,  small  quanti- 
ties being  also  produced  in  Chili  and  Argentina. 

The  chief  coffee-producing  districts  of  Venezuela  lie 
in  a  central  division,  having  Caracas  and  Valencia  as  a 
base,  with  the  ports  of  La  Guayra  and  Puerto  Cabello  as 
shipping  points,  the  district  surrounding  the  Lake  of 
Valencia  being  one  of  the  most  productive  coffee  coun- 
tries in  the  world  in  the  quantity  and  quality  of  its  product. 
They  include  La  Guayra,  Caracas,  Maracaibo,  Curagoa 
and  Angostura  coffees. 

La  Guayra— Also  known  as  "  Coro  "  and  "  Port," 
or  Puerto  Cabello,  from  the  ports  of  shipment,  varies  in 
size  from  small  to  medium,  and  from  a  pale  to  a  dark- 
green  in  color.  It  is  usually  graded  on  a  parity  with 
Rio,  to  which  coffee  it  most  approximates  in  roast  and 
drink,  it  being  frequently  polished  and  sold  as  such, 


l66  VENEZUELAN    COFFEES. 


particularly  when  Rios  are  scarce,  and,  although  classed 
as  a  "  Mild  coffee,"  develops  more  or  less  of  a  Rio  flavor 
in  the  cup. 

Caracas — Is  of  two  kinds — Trilliado  Milled  or 
"dry-hulled"  and  Descerazado  (Washed)  or  "wet-hulled" — 
from  the  different  methods  employed  in  pulping  and  pre- 
paring for  market.  The  former  is  a  yellowish,  medium- 
sized  bean,  regular  and  uniform  in  the  natural  state,  but 
apt  to  be  "  quakery  "  in  the  roasted,  and  only  fair  in  the 
drink.  While  "  Washed  Caracas,"  on  the  other  hand,  is 
bold  and  bluish  in  color,  opening  at  the  furrow  when 
roasted  like  a  Mountain  Jamaica  or  Plantation  Ceylon, 
exceedingly  heavy  and  rich  in  body  and  fragrant  in 
flavor,  and  may  be  classed  as  one  of  the  best  varieties 
grown. 

Maracaibos — Consist  of  five  different  varieties  or 
grades — Cucuta,  Merida,  Bocono,  Tovar  and  Trujillo — 
district  terms,  ranking  in  the  order  named,  "  Cucuta " 
being,  when  the  season  is  favorable,  one  of  the  best 
coffees  grown,  grading  with  many  of  the  products  of 
Java  itself  The  raw  or  natural  bean  of  the  finer  grades  is 
large,  round  and  solid  in  substance,  deep,  rich-yellow  in 
color,  approximating  to  that  of  the  best  yellow-bean 
Java  sorts  in  style,  appearance  and  drink.  While 
"  Merida  "  is  a  mountain-grown  coffee,  large,  bold  and 
bluish  in  color,  frequently  excelling  "  Cucuta,"  particu- 
larly when  the  crop  is  good,  and  possessing  a  full  ripe 
liquor  with  round  full  body  and  distinctive  flavor  very 
pleasing  to  the  average  consumer. 

"  Bocono,"  "  Tovar  "  and  "  Trujillo,"  are  inferior 
grades  to  the  above,  small  and  gnarled  in  the  natural 
state,  generally  stony  and  broken,  "  quakery "  and 
shriveled  when  roasted,  light  in  liquor,  but  smooth  and 


COLOMBIAN    COFFEES.  1 67 

pleasing  in  flavor  withal,  making  good  useful  coffees  for 
blending  purposes.  Maracaibo  coffees  are  packed  in 
Sisal-hemp  bags  averaging  130  pounds,  and  principally 
shipped  to  the  United  States,  where  they  are  held  in  high 
esteem  for  their  many  excellent  qualities,  the  regular 
grades  of  Cucuta  being  marked  "  C  "  under  the  importers' 
initials,  and  the  choicer  grades  "  C  C."  Merida  is  indi- 
cated by  the  letter  "  M  "  in  the  same  manner,  Bocono 
by  "  B,"  Tovar  by  ''  T  "  and  Trujillo  by  "  To."  But 
owing  to  the  too  common  practice  of  substituting  and 
repacking  indulged  in  by  unscrupulous  dealers,  these 
distinguishing  marks  cannot  always  be  relied  on  with 
any  certainty. 

CuraQoa — Is  a  small,  yellowish,  shriveled  or  shrunken 
bean  coffee,  evidently  immature  or  blighted  in  growth 
from  some  unknown  cause.  It  is  generally  "  quakery" 
in  the  roast,  but  yields  a  not  disagreeable  liquor  in  the 
cup,  making  a  valuable  variety  in  combination  to  reduce 
cost. 

Angostura — Is  a  large,  flabby,  yellowish  bean 
variety,  shapely  in  form  but  light  and  **  chaffy"  in  sub- 
stance, and  invariably  "  quakery"  when  roasted,  the 
liquor  being  thin,  watery  and  almost  flavorless. 

Venezuela  supplies  about  one-tenth  of  all  the  coffee 
consumed  in  the  United  States,  the  total  imports  being 
in  round  numbers  about  60,000,000  pounds  per  annum, 
and  growing  steadily. 

ooi-rOAi:]Br^?\.::v    ooim^e^e:^. 

The  coffee-producing  districts  in  Colombia  are  situated 
chiefly  in  the  departments  of  Boyaca,  Santander  and 
Cundamarca,  these  three  departments  having  an  area  of 
•over  160,000  square  miles,  of  which  nearly  one-half  is 


1 68  -  COLOMBIAN    COFFEES. 

adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  some  of  the  finest  varieties 
of  coffee  grown.  The  possibility  of  this  extensive  area 
promises  a  future  supply  of  almost  six  times  the  amount 
consumed  in  the  United  States ;  in  fact,  coffee-growing 
in  Colombia,  Hke  Mexico,  has  no  limit  except  that  caused 
by  the  lack  of  labor  and  capital  to  work  it.  They  are 
known  in  trade  as  Ocana,  Bogota,  Panama,  Savanilla  and 
Bucaramanga. 

Ocana. — While  bold  in  bean  and  regular  in  form, 
inclining  to  a  yellowish  in  color,  is  still  light  in  weight 
and,  thin  in  body,  approaching  that  of  a  Trujillo  Mara- 
caibo  in  flavor,  with  which  coffee  it  is  usually  graded. 

Bogota — Is  a  mountain-grown  coffee,  raised  on  the 
western  slopes  of  the  Andes.  It  is  usually  a  large  and 
well-developed  bean,  bluish-green  and  very  uniform  in 
general  appearance,  solid,  compact,  and  faultless  in  the 
roast.  The  liquor  is  heavy,  full,  round  and  fragrant  in 
flavor,  comparing  favorably  with  Caracas,  Jamaica,  Guate- 
mala and  Plantation  Ceylon  in  general  style  and 
character. 

Savanilla— Is  a  large,  light  and  "spongy"  bean 
coffee,  brittle  and  chaffy  in  the  roast,  devoid  of  body 
and  almost  flavorless.  It  closely  approximates  to  a  Na- 
tive Ceylon  or  Angostura  in  appearance  and  character, 
with  which  coffees  it  is  commercially  classed. 

Panama — Is  comparatively  a  new  variety,  recently 
produced  on  the  isthmus,  and  like  all  new  productions 
immature  in  appearance.  It  is  of  the  average  size, 
greenish  in  color,  but  moist  and  spongy  in  the  natural 
state,  and  as  yet  but  poorly  prepared.  The  liquor  is 
heavy  and  strong  almost  to  rankness,  possessing  a  grassy 
or  uncooked  taste,  defects,  it  is  claimed,  that  will  be 


COLOMBIAN    COFFEES.  1 69 

overcome  in  time  when  its  cultivation  and  preparation  is 
better  understood  there. 

Bucaramanga — Known  to  trade  as  "  Bucaramanga 
Maracaibo,"  ranks  among  the  finest  of  the  South  American 
varieties,  being  large  and  bold  in  style,  solid  and  weighty 
in  substance,  perfect  in  roast,  heavy,  round  and  full  in 
liquor,  fragrant  and  aromatic  in  flavor,  the  finest  grades 
being  superior  to  many  of  the  Java  sorts.  The  depart- 
ment of  Chinqui  in  the  interior  of  Colombia  also  offers 
a  good  field  for  coffee  culture,  the  fine  lands  along  the 
slopes  of  the  mountain  ranges  being  admirably  adapted 
for  the  purpose.  The  annual  product  is  about  20,000,000 
pounds,  going  chiefly  to  the  United  States  and  France. 

Equador  Coffees — Include  Cuenca,  Tacunga  and 
Machala,  but  are  generally  classed  under  the  name  of 
"  Guayquil,"  being  shipped  from  that  port  and  consumed 
principally  on  the  Pacific  coast,  but  are  limited  in 
production,  little  being  left  for  export  after  the  home 
demand  has  been  supplied.  They  range  from  medium 
to  large  in  size,  are  somewhat  bold  in  style,  hard  and 
flinty  in  texture,  pale  to  greenish  in  color,  and  only  fairly 
uniform,  being  rather  imperfectly  prepared,  but  roast  and 
drink  well,  nevertheless,  yielding  a  light-brown  liquor, 
full  in  body  and  fairly  fragrant  in  flavor.  Increasing 
attention  is  being  given  to  coffee  cultivation  in  Equador, 
the  produce  of  the  new  districts  being  of  good  quality. 
The  exports  from  Guayquil  average  about  i, 000,000 
pounds  per  annum,  but  in  some  years  the  crop  is  entirely 
spoilt  by  heavy  rains,  the  yield  being  inferior  in  quality 
and  so  low  in  quantity  as  not  to  suffice  for  local  needs. 

Bolivian  Coffees — Are  comparatively  new  to  com- 
merce and  bid  fair  to  become  popular  sorts  in  time, 


170  COLOMBIAN    COFFEES. 


when  their  cultivation  and  methods  of  properly  preparing 
are  better  understood  in  that  country.  They  are  pro- 
duced principally  in  the  provinces  of  Yungas  and  Mapin, 
small  quantities  being  also  grown  in  the  other  provinces. 
The  finest  kind  is  that  cultivated  in  the  valley  of  Yungas, 
which  though  small  in  size  and  pale  in  color  possesses  a 
peculiarly  rich  and  delicate  flavor,  commanding  a  very 
high  price  relatively.  The  product,  however,  is  limited, 
only  about  300,000  pounds  per  annum,  or  equal  to  one- 
fourth  the  entire  supply.  The  product  of  Mapin  is  much 
larger  in  size,  greenish  in  color,  but  not  near  as  rich  in 
flavor,  bringing  a  much  less  price,  the  annual  product 
being  three  times  greater.  Bolivian  coffees  in  general 
produce  an  intoxicating  effect,  this  peculiar  action  being 
as  yet  unaccounted  for,  but  is  claimed  by  some  authorities 
to  be  acquired  from  being  grown  in  the  immediate  vicinity 
of  the  cactus  plant,  from  which  pulque  is  distilled,  the 
coffee  plant  being  of  such  a  sensitive  and  absorbent  nature 
that  it  readily  acquires  any  foreign  flavor  within  range. 
Whether  this  claim  is  correct  or  not  has  not  as  yet 
been  ascertained,  but  certain  it  is  that  what  is  known  as 
Singapore  coffee  usually  tastes  of  spices,  Honduras  of 
cocoa  and  Costa  Rica  of  what  is  called,  for  want  of  a 
more  applicable  term,  "  hide,"  but  which  is  in  reality  due 
to  the  presence  of  oxide  of  iron  in  the  soil. 

Guiana  Coffees.— Known  to  trade  as  "Surinam," 
"Demerara"  and  "  Cayenne,"  from  the  ports  of  shipment, 
are  produced  in  the  French  and  Dutch  colonies  of  South 
America.  But  although  the  cultivation  of  coffee  was 
introduced  into  these  countries  about  the  same  period  as 
to  Martinique,  its  cultivation  there  has  made  but  little 
progress,  the  total  production  being  limited  in  supply,  and 
going  chiefly  to  the  mother  countries. 


BRAZILIAN   COFFEES.  ^71 

Peruvian  Coffee. — Coffee  grows  luxuriantly  on  the 
mountain  slopes  of  Peru,  the  crops  often  being  so  heavy 
as  to  necessitate  artificial  support  for  the  branches,  yet  the 
export  from  Mollendo,  the  shipping  port,  amounts  only 
to  about  16,000  pounds  per  annum.  It  ranges  in  size 
from  medium  to  bold,  varying  in  color  from  bluish  to 
yellow,  roasting  and  drinking  with  the  average  of  other 
South  American  sorts. 

Paraguayan  Coffee. — The  total  production  of  coffee 
in  Paraguay  is  exceedingly  small  in  comparison  with 
what  might  be  grown  there  under  more  favorable  cir- 
cumstances, little  or  no  attention  being  given  to  its  cul- 
tivation, owing  to  lack  of  labor  and  capital,  and  notwith- 
standing that  it  offers  a  fine  field  for  its  more  extensive 
growth. 

Brazil  being  the  most  extensive  coffee-growing  country 
in  South  America  and  the  largest  producer  of  coffee  in 
point  of  quantity  of  any  country  in  the  world  needs 
more  than  a  passing  notice  in  this  work.  The  gigantic 
extent  to  which  its  production  has  been  carried  there, 
the  enormous,  almost  fabulous,  amount  of  capital  invested 
in  its  cultivation,  the  multitude  of  people  employed  in  its 
preparation  and  handling,  including  the  quantity  of  ship- 
ping employed  in  its  transportation  invests  it  with  great 
importance.  One  must  have  been  an  eye-witness  of  the 
immense  bustle  occasioned  by  the  coffee  trade  of  Rio 
and  Santos,  must  have  observed  the  feverish  excitement 
and  the  unprecedented  rapidity  with  which  it  is  prepared, 
transported,  bagged,  unbagged,  mixed,  rebagged,  loaded, 
marketed  and  shipped  before  he  can  form  any  conception 
of  the  extent  of  the  coffee  industry  in  Brazil. 

Ini  7 1 8  the  Dutch  colony  of  Surinam  began  to  introduce 
and  cultivate  coffee  in  Guiana  from  plants  received  from 


172  BRAZILIAN   COFFEES. 


Java,  and  in  1722  De  la  Motte,  the  French  Governor  of  the 
adjoining  colony  of  Cayenne,  having  business  in  Surinam, 
contrived  by  an  artifice  to  bring  away  with  him  from  there 
a  small  coffee  plant,  which  in  1725  had  produced  many 
thousands  which  were  distributed  among  all  the  French 
colonies  on  the  mainland,  its  propagation  extending  to 
Para  in  1732,  the  first  coffee  plantation  formed  in  Brazil 
being  commenced  in  that  province  a  few  years  later.  Its 
cultivation,  however,  made  but  little  progress  there  until 
about  1767,  when  its  cultivation  was  still  further  extended 
to  the  province  of  Maranhao,  where  it  soon  increased 
rapidly  under  a  more  careful  and  systematic  management. 
In  1774  a  Belgian  monk  named  Molke  procured  some 
coffee  plants  from  a  prosperous  plantation  in  Maranhao, 
which  had  previously  been  obtained  from  Surinam,  and 
planted  them  in  the  garden  of  the  Capucin  monastery  of 
Adjuda,  then  situated  in  what  is  now  the  centre  of  the 
city  of  Rio  de  Janeiro.  The  plants  prospered  so  well, 
and  he  becoming  convinced  of  their  importance  as  a 
valuable  acquisition  to  the  industries  of  the  country  that 
he  established  a  plantation  in  the  vicinity  for  its  more 
systematic  cultivation.  Joachim  Bruneo,  the  then 
Bishop  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  perceiving  the  valuable  bene- 
fits that  would  result  from  its  more  extensive  cultivation, 
distributed  seeds  and  plants  raised  on  Molke's  plantation 
among  the  religious  institutions  and  planters  of  the  coun- 
try, recommending  and  encouraging  its  cultivation  among 
them,  but  it  was  not  until  1800  that  Brazilian  coffee 
came  to  be  so  highly  valued  in  the  markets  of  the  world. 
In  that  year  a  planter  named  Dr.  Lecesne,  expelled  by 
the  revolution  from  San  Domingo,  settled  near  Rio  and 
introduced  the  latest  improved  methods  of  cultivating 
the  coffee  plant  into  that  country.  From  these  simple 
and    unostentatious   beginnings    has    grown    the  now 


BRAZILIAN   COFFEES.  1 73 


enormous  coffee  industry  of  Brazil,  which  at  present  pro- 
duces more  coffee  than  all  the  other  countries  in  the 
world  combined ;  it  being  calculated  that  upwards  of 
1,500,000  acres  of  land  are  under  coffee  culture  there, 
containing  nearly  600,000,000  trees,  hundreds  of  millions 
of  dollars  of  capital  being  invested  in  its  culture,  sale 
and  transport.  The  cultivation  of  coffee  in  Brazil  now 
extends  from  the  banks  of  the  Amazon  to  the  southern 
province  of  Sao  Paulo,  and  from  the  coast  to  the  west- 
ern limits  of  the  country,  the  plant  seeming  to  find  the 
requisite  conditions  of  soil  and  climate  in  almost  every 
part  of  this  vast  region,  and  nearly  everywhere  giving  an 
abundant  yield.  Its  chief  zone  of  production  for  com- 
mercial purposes,  however,  is  chiefly  confined  to  the  coast 
provinces  of  Bahia,  Ceara,  Rio  Janeiro,  Sao  Paulo,  Minas 
Geraes  and  Espiritu  Santo. 

In  Brazil  it  was  formerly  the  custom  to  propagate  the 
coffee  plant  by  slips  or  "  shoots"  cut  from  the  older 
plants  on  the  plantations,  but  at  present  it  is  more  generally 
grown  from  the  seed,  as  in  the  Eastern  countries.  The 
seeds  are  sown  in  nurseries  planted  with  advanced  stalks 
of  the  mandioca,  which  serve  to  shade  the  sprints  while 
young  and  tender  from  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold 
alike,  but  are  gradually  thinned  out  as  the  growth  of  the 
young  plants  advance,  the  nursery  at  this  period  resembling 
a  young  plum  thicket.  When  the  plants  have  reached 
a  height  of  from  eighteen  to  twenty-four  inches,  they  are 
transferred  to  the  plantations  and  planted  from  six  to 
ten  feet  apart,  according  to  the  district  and  conditions.  As 
a  general  rule  a  crop  is  not  expected  until  four  years  after 
setting  out  the  young  plants,  unless  when  the  plants  are 
from  eighteen  months  to  two  years  old  before  transplant- 
ing, in  which  case  a  partial  crop  is  obtained  at  the  end  of 
the  third  year.    Nearly  all  overthe  Brazilian  coffee  zone  the 


174  BRAZILIAN    COFFEES. 


plantations  extend  with  the  greatest  regularity,  as  far  as 
the  eye  can  reach,  presenting  a  most  attractive  and  pleas- 
ing effect,  some  fazendas  (plantations)  having  as  many 
as  350,000  trees,  others  again  having  as  low  as  30,000, 
but  all  averaging  from  500  to  800  trees  to  the  \i2}S  fane- 
gada  (acre),  the  average  annual  produce  of  each  tree 
ranging  from  one  to  seven  pounds  of  prepared  coffee,  or 
about  one  to  one  and  a  half  pounds  per  picking  of 
cleaned  coffee.  The  plantations  situated  on  high  lands 
and  exposed  to  the  east  being  the  most  productive,  but 
prospering  equally  well  in  the  lowland  districts,  although 
the  product  is  much  inferior  in  quality  and  flavor. 
The  trees  are  grown  in  lines  and  squares,  the  face  of 
the  country  in  the  coffee-growing  districts  being  undulat- 
ing and  hilly,  a  plantation  of  coffee  being  at  every  season 
of  the  year  an  object  of  beauty  and  interest.  The  leaves 
are  perennially  bright  and  polished,  resembling  those  of 
the  laurel  when  in  full  bloom,  but  of  a  much  darker 
green  in  color,  the  flowers  or  blossoms  of  the  purest 
white,  growing  in  tufts  along  the  top  of  the  branches,  and 
blooming  so  suddenly  that  in  the  morning  the  trees 
look  as  if  snow  had  fallen  on  them  in  flaky  wreaths 
during  the  night,  their  jasmine-like  perfume  being  power- 
ful enough  to  be  oppressive,  but  lasting  only  for  a  single 
day,  being  succeeded  immediately  by  branches  of  imma- 
ture green  and  the  dark-crimson  hull  of  the  ripe  berries — 
resembling  cherries  in  their  brilliancy  and  size — and 
following  each  other  in  quick  succession,  which  added  to 
the  thick  foliage  of  the  trees  presents  altogether  a  magni- 
ficent spectacle. 

In  Brazil  the  coffee  trees  continue  to  bear  from  fifteen 
to  twenty  years,  but  it  is  found  necessary  to  the  healthy 
development  of  the  plants  to  keep  the  ground  in  good 
condition,  and  when  the  interspaces  are  not  cultivated 


BRAZILIAN   COFFEES.  I75 

with  other  plants — principally  corn  and  beans — as  is 
usually  the  custom,  it  is  annually  cleared  around  the 
roots,  a  compost  of  dead  leaves  and  coffee-hulls  being 
placed  about  them.  In  some  districts — notably  Sao 
Paulo — many  of  the  trees  have  been  producing  con- 
tinuously for  twenty-five  years,  still  presenting  a  vigorous 
appearance  and  yielding  an  average  each  year,  while  others 
that  had  attained  an  age  of  thirty-five  years  were  cut  off 
within  eighteen  inches  of  the  ground,  and  two  years  later 
put  forth  new  branches,  presenting  all  the  appearance  of 
thriving  trees,  bearing  fruit  like  much  younger  trees. 
This  is  a  new  and  interesting  feature  in  the  management 
of  the  old  trunks  of  coffee  trees,  one  having  the  advan- 
tage of  new  growth  being  secured  in  one-half  the  time  it 
could  be  obtained  from  seedlings,  as  even  should  these 
stumps  require  to  be  dug  around  and  manured  fre- 
quently, it  is  much  more  preferable  and  profitable  to  the 
trouble,  expense  and  uncertainty  connected  with  the  rais- 
ing of  new  plants  from  seed,  and  certainly  presents  greater 
advantages  over  the  latter  method.  In  Brazil  the  pick- 
ing is  latterly — since  the  abolishment  of  slavery — done 
by  contract  with  the  fazendon,  or  proprietor,  who  only 
requires  the  services  of  the  pickers  to  gather  the 
berries  from  the  trees,  for  which  labor  they  are  paid 
what  is  considered  to  be  one-half  the  value  of  the 
crude  coffee  that  is  gathered  by  them.  The  estimate 
placed  upon  an  alqiierie  (bushel)  of  crude  berries 
being  about  seventy-five  cents,  which,  unless  the  crop  is 
good,  ordinary  hands  do  not  gather  more  than  two  bush- 
els per  diem  ;  yet,  again,  w^hen  the  crops  are  large,  an 
industrious  and  skillful  picker  can  average  from  five  to 
eight  bushels  without  effort.  The  berries  are  picked  by 
band,  the  ground  being  raked  clean  under  the  trees  pre- 
vious to  picking,  an  immense,  broad,  flat  receptacle  of 


I'je  BRAZILIAN   COFFEES. 


bamboo  being  placed  underneath  the  trees,  the  berries 
that  fail  to  fall  into  this  being  carefully  swept  up  from 
the  clean,  smooth  ground  and  emptied  into  it  until  filled, 
when  it  is  carried  to  a  point  convenient  to  the  roadside 
and  emptied  in  piles,  from  which  the  coffee  is  afterwards 
hauled  in  ox-carts  to  a  large  building  known  as  the 
terreiro  or  drying-yard.  Picking  commences  in  April, 
and  is  continued  almost  uninterruptedly  until  November, 
and  after  the  coffee  is  gathered  it  is  carted  just  as  it 
comes  from  the  plantations,  mixed  with  leaves,  stalks 
and  stones  to  the  drying-house  and  spread  out  on  the 
terraces,  large  smooth,  concrete  pavements,  to  dry  in  the 
sun  until  the  berries  become  black  and  crisp,  after  which 
they  are  "  hulled  "  or  cleaned  by  one  of  two  methods : 
one  the  old  or  "  Monjola  process,"  and  the  other  the 
new  or  "  Despolpodor"  process. 

Brazilian  coffees  are  known  to  commerce  as  Bahia, 
Ceara,  Capatinea,  Rios,  Santos  and  Maragogipi. 

Bahia — Is  a  small,  uneven  greenish  bean,  very  inferior 
in  style  and  appearance,  usually  "  stemmy  "  and  stony 
and  thickly  interspersed  with  black  or  immature  beans, 
and  is  usually  branded  "  S "  or  "  S  S."  The  roast  is 
poor,  irregular  and  quakery,  the  liquor  thin  and  grassy 
or  unripe  in  flavor. 

Ceara — Resembles  Bahia  somewhat  in  general  char- 
acter, being  poorly  prepared  and  very  unsightly  in  the 
natural  state,  the  body  and  flavor  being  still  more  inferior. 

Capatinea — Grown  in  the  province  of  Espiritu  Santo, 
but  also  known  to  trade  as  "  Victoria  "  from  the  port  of 
shipment,  is  a  large  whitish,  soft  and  flabby  bean 
coffee,  quakery  in  the  roast  and  watery  and  flavorless  in 
the  cup.  ) 


BRAZILIAN   COFFEES.  1*77 

Rio  Coffees — Are  almost  too  well  known  to  need 
description;  the  bean,  however,  varies  widely  in  size 
and  color  ranging  from  small  to  large,  and  from  dark 
green  to  light  yellow,  being  known  to  trade  as  "  Light," 
**  Dark "  and  "  Golden."  They  are  heavy  in  body, 
possessing  a  flavor  and  aroma  peculiarly  distinct  from  that 
of  all  other  coffees,  and  which  is  so  marked  in  degree  as 
to  be  readily  detected  by  the  most  inexpert,  excepting 
"  Golden  Rio  "  which,  aside  from  its  rich  color,  possesses 
a  markedly  pungent  liquor  and  pleasing  flavor. 

Pole-cat  Rio — Is  a  very  dark,  almost  black  bean 
coffee,  which,  although  muddy  and  dark  in  liquor,  is 
nevertheless  much  appreciated  by  many  coffee  drinkers. 

Liberian  Rio — Grown  from  Liberian  plants  in  Brazil, 
is  little  thought  of,  producing  little,  and  that  irregularly. 
The  fruit  also  requires  special  machinery  to  prepare  it, 
the  husk  being  too  thick  and  leathery  to  pass  through 
the  regular  machines. 

Rio  Hache — Though  frequently  classed  with  Rio 
coffees,  as  a  matter  of  fact  is  not  grown  in  that  country, 
but  in  Colombia.  The  bean  is  yellowish-brown  in  color, 
light  in  weight  and  liquor,  and  somewhat  mawkish  in 
flavor.  Like  all  other  coffees,  Rios  improve  with  age, 
and  with  time  loses  their  harsh  flavor,  which  becomes 
greatly  modified  by  storing,  disappearing  altogether  in 
from  three  to  four  years,  particularly  when  kept  in  an 
even  temperature. 

Santos  Coffees — Produced  in  the  adjoining  province 
of  Sao  Paulo,  but  deriving  its  trade-name  from  the  port  of 
shipment,  ranges  from  small  to  large  in  size  and  from 
green  and  yellow  to  a  full  white  in  color  according  to  its 
maturity,  it  is  an  immensely  popular  sort  among  Ameri- 
can consumers  as  well  as  in  Europe,  having  more  than 


y^g  OTHER    BRAZILIAN    VARIETIES. 


doubled  in  consumption  in  recent  years.  It  is  fast  sup- 
planting the  milder  growths  of  other  countries,  the 
finer  grades  being  frequently  substituted  for  Maracaibo, 
and  even  Java,  by  unprincipled  dealers.  While  many 
of  them  roast  "  quakery,"  they  are  nevertheless  almost 
invariably  smooth  and  pleasing  in  liquor  and  flavor. 

Red-bean  Santos — Grown  in  the  Campinas  district, 
is  medium  in  size  and  reddish  in  color  —  a  peculiarity 
derived  from  the  soil,  which  is  composed  of  terra  rocha 
(red  earth)  —  and  is  claimed  to  be  richer  and  more 
flavory  than  either  the  white  or  yellow  bean  varieties. 

Mocha-seed  Santos — Is  a  small-bean  variety,  grown 
from  Bourbon  seed  or  transplants,  and  is  fast  becoming  a 
very  popular  sort.  It  is  shipped  principally  to  France, 
where  it  masquerades  under  the  name  of  Mocha,  thereby 
diminishing  the  demand  for  this  favorite  sort  in  propor- 
tion to  the  amount  distributed. 

MaragOgipi — Which  was  discovered  in  the  province 
of  Bahia  some  years  since,  is  claimed  to  be  an  indige- 
neous  variety  and  is  called  after  the  district  where  it  was 
first  found.  The  bean  is  as  large  as  Liberian,  but  flat  in 
form  and  varies  in  color  from  a  very  light  to  a  dark- 
green,  but  while  heavy  and  full  in  body  and  fair  in  qual- 
ity, it  is  yet  lacking  in  all  the  essentials  of  a  fine  coffee, 
disappointing  the  great  expectations  at  one  time  formed 
of  it. 

Cafe  des  Aguas — Is  so  termed  from  blossoming  in  the 
rainy  season,  and  which  has  the  effect  of  stunting  and 
deforming  the  beans.  The  bean  is  oblong  in  shape  and 
imperfectly  formed,  while  the  liquor  is  thin  and  watery 
and  devoid  of  flavor. 


OTHER    BRAZILIAN    VARIETIES.  >79 

■  I  ■!      ...I -I. ^ IM_^— ^''      V4 

Cafe  Vermelho — Is  the  regular  "  Red-berry"  species, 
and  is  so  named  to  distinguish  it  from  a  new  variety  said 
to  have  been  recently  discovered  and  termed 

Cafe  Amarello — Or  "  Yellow-berry,"  recently  found 
in  the  district  of  Botucatu,  and  is  so  called  because  the 
ripe  berry  is  yellow  instead  of  red.  It  is  superior  to 
the  ordinary  sort,  not  on  account  of  any  difference  in  the 
size  of  the  bean,  but  according  to  the  chemical  analysis 
of  experts,  who  claim  that  it  is  much  richer  in  caffeine. 

Brazilian  Java, — Extensive  plantations  of  Java  coffee 
plants  have  lately  been  formed  in  Brazil  as  an  experiment, 
but  does  not  produce  such  heavy  and  regular  crops  as  in 
the  original  soil. 

Goyaz  Coffee — Is  a  wild  species,  discovered  a  few 
years  ago  in  the  province  of  Goyaz,  but  is  little  thought 
of  by  planters  or  dealers,  being  wild  and  grassy  in  flavor. 

In  Brazil  the  planters  generally  forward  their  crops  to 
a  Commissario  or  factor  at  the  shipping  port,  who  acts 
as  their  agent,  the  coffee  being  received  in  varying  lots 
and  conditions  from  different  growers,  no  uniformity 
being  observed  in  the  kind  of  bag  or  quantity.  The  com- 
missarios  again  disposes  of  it  to  the  Ensaccadcres,  who 
are  the  actual  buyers  at  first  hands,  and  who  store  it  in 
large  warehouses,  where  it  is  graded  and  bagged,  and 
stored  until  required  for  shipment  to  the  foreign  markets. 
The  sacks  of  coffee  being  piled  on  either  side,  each  being 
numbered  and  further  distinguished  by  some  special 
mark  or  brand.  At  the  present  time  many  commissarios 
have  the  coffee  weighed  as  they  sell  it,  but  sales  between 
the  commissarios  and  ensaccaderes  are  never  con- 
cluded in  Rio  without  the  assistance  of  a  Corretor  or 
broker,  while  in  Santos,  where  the  exporter  buys  his 
coffee  direct  from   the  commissario,  it   is    sold  mostly 


y9o  OTHER    BRAZILIAN    VARIETIES. 

without  the  intervention  of  a  broker,  the  terms  of 
payment  being  fixed  at  thirty  days. 

Brazilian  coffees  are  generically  classed  in  the  Rio  and 
Santos  markets  as  "  Highland  "  and  "  Lowland  "  and  are 
graded  as  Superior  or  "  Choice,"  Primera  or  *'  First, " 
Primera  boa  or  "Good  first,"  Primera  regular  or 
"  Regular  first,"  Primera  ordinaria  or  "  Ordinary  first," 
Segunda  or  "  Second,"  Segunda  boa  or  "  Good  second," 
and  Segunda  ordinaria  or  "  Ordinary  second."  Importa- 
tions are  generally  in  "  Cargoes  "  divided  into  "Invoices" 
or  "  Lines,"  designated  by  letters.  An  invoice  consisting 
of  a  number  of  "  Chops  "  denoted  by  figures,  each  chop 
varying  from  the  other  in  quality,  size  anc  color.  In  the 
American  market  the  coffee  is  subdivided  into  six  grades, 
known  to  trade  as  "Fancy,"  "Choice,"  "  Prime,"  "Good," 
*'Fair,"  "Ordinary"  and  "Common,"  the  first  four 
grades  being  further  distinguished  by  the  terms  "  Light," 
"  Medium "  and  "  Dark,"  and  by  prefixing  the  term 
"  Strict "  or  "  Strictly"  correct  selections  of  each  grade 
may  be  secured. 

There  is  no  standard  grade,  nor  is  it  possible  to  estab- 
lish one,  owing  to  the  changes  made  by  time  in  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  coffee,  which  causes  the  different  grades 
to  vary  with  the  size,  color  and  quality  of  the  coffee  and 
the  condition  of  the  market  on  arrival.  On  an  active 
and  rising  market  the  coffee  that  on  a  steady  market 
would  be  denominated  only  "  Fair,"  suddenly  becomes 
"Prime"  or  "Good,"  and  on  a  dull  or  declining  market 
may  be  classed  as  "  Ordinary."  The  following  consti- 
tutes the  different  grades  as  they  are  generally  accepted 
on  this  market : — 

Fancy  Rio  or  Santos — Is  large,  bold  and  uniform 
in  size  and  color,  free  from  all  imperfections,  and  attrac- 
tive in  style  and  appearance. 


OTHER  VARIETIES.  l8l 


Prime — Is  very  clean  and  regular  in  size  and  color, 
but  deficient  in  the  rich,  pleasing  appearance  of  the 
former. 

Good — Is  acknowledged  as  the  average  or  "Standard" 
grade,  and  ranges  from  clean  to  strictly  clean,  and  is 
uniform  in  bean  and  color. 

Fair — Is  only  moderately  clean,  containing  some 
black  or  broken  beans  and  other  slight  imperfections. 

Ordinary — Is  irregular  in  size  and  color,  and  un- 
sightly in  appearance,  containing  much  black  beans  and 
other  extraneous  matter. 

Common — Is  the  poorest  grade,  and  is  generally  full 
of  black  and  broken  beans,  stems,  hulls  and  chaff,  having 
no  definite  color,  and  very  unsightly  in  general  appear- 
ance. On  the  Coffee  Exchanges  they  are  graded  numeri- 
cally from  No.  i  to  No.  lo.  No.  7,  or  "Low  ordinary," 
being  adopted  as  the  "  Standard  grade,"  upon  which  all 
transactions  are  based.  In  point  of  quantity  Brazil  heads 
the  list  of  coffee-producing  countries,  its  annual  product 
ranging  from  7,000,000  to  8,000,000  bags  of  130  pounds 
each,  75  per  cent,  of  which  is  exported  to  the  United 
States,  the  remainder  going  chiefly  to  Europe. 

Pea-berry  Coffees, — Also  known  to  trade  as  "  Male- 
berry"  and  "Pearl-bean,"  are  concave-convex  in  form 
and  may  belong  to  any  variety,  from  Rio  to  Java.  Their 
peculiar  shape  being  accounted  for  as  follows :  Each 
't)erfect  coffee  berry  should  contain  two  oval  seeds  or  beans 
placed  facing  each  other  in  the  fruit  or  pod,  but  it  most 
frequently  occurs  that  only  one  seed  will  form  in  it,  the 
other  becoming  abortive.    The  one  forming  receiving  all 


1«2  OTHER  VARIETIES. 


the  nourishment  of  the  investing  coats,  forces  itself 
against  the  dividing  membranes  and  encountering  no 
opposition  naturally  develops  into  a  larger  bean,  which 
in  the  process  of  growth  assumes  a  shape  different  from 
that  of  the  regular  or  "  flat  bean  "  of  commerce. 

Cherry-dried  Coffee— Is  a  term  applied  in  the  East 
to  coffees  cured  by  the  old  or  sun-dried  process.  After 
the  berries  have  been  harvested  they  are  spread  out  on 
"  patios  "  or  terraces  exposed  to  the  sun's  rays  for  a  period 
covering  from  six  to  eight  weeks,  or  until  they  are 
thoroughly  dried,  before  being  pulped  and  hulled.  Mean- 
while they  are  raked  and  turned  over  once  a  day  during 
the  drying  period,  in  order  to  prevent  heating  and  fer- 
mentation, and  at  night  heaped  up  and  covered  over  with 
matting  or  other  material  to  protect  them  in  case  of  rain, 
and  from  the  heavy  dews,  until  the  process  is  completed, 
after  which  they  are  pulped  and  hulled  by  crushing  in  a 
mill. 

Washed  Coffees — Are  so  termed  from  being  pre- 
pared by  the  new  or  West  India  process,  by  which  the 
coffee  is  pulped  immediately  after  being  picked,  the 
berries  being  placed  in  a  large  vat  and  the  pulp  soaked 
off.  The  coffee  in  the  parchment  left  in  the  vat  is  kept 
in  constant  motion  by  agitation  with  a  kind  of  rake 
or  shovel  to  wash  it  well,  the  water  being  constantly 
changed  also  while  the  washing  continues,  to  remove  the 
debris  with  which  the  coffee  charges  the  water,  the  coffee 
sinking,  while  the  pulp,  blighted  berries  and  other 
extraneous  matter  such  as  stems  and  leaves  are  floated 
off  by  the  water,  after  which  the  beans  are  again  washed 
and  spread  out  on  mats  to  dry.  By  this  method  the 
coffee  must  be  crushed  the  same  day,  otherwise  it  will 
ferment  and  the  flavor  be  greatly  injured. 


OTHER   VARIETIES.  I&i 


Triage — Is  composed  chiefly  of  dead  or  decayed 
beans,  which  are  invariably  sour,  bitter  and  black,  being 
entirely  destitute  of  the  active  principle  of  coffee,  con- 
taining no  aroma  and  invariably  injuring  and  detracting 
from  any  coffee  in  which  they  may  be  mixed — as  they 
usually  are — no  matter  how  small  the  quantity  used. 

Screenings — Are  composed  of  the  dust,  chaff  and 
mutilated  beans  separated  from  the  regular  grades  of 
coffee  in  the  process  of  milling,  and  drink  well  accord- 
ing to  the  variety  or  grade  from  which  they  are  obtained, 
but  are  generally  roasted,  ground  and  mixed  with  chicory, 
and  sold  in  package  form. 

Skimmings — Are  usually  composed  of  that  portion 
of  the  cargo  stowed  in  the  bottom  or  sides  of  the  vessels 
in  which  it  is  imported,  or  of  the  storehouse  sweepings 
after  the  regular  coffee  has  been  delivered.  A  greater  or 
less  portion  of  all  cargoes  are  found  damaged  by  damp- 
ness or  bilge-water  during  the  voyage,  thus  staining  and 
discoloring  the  coffee,  rendering  it  mouldy  or  musty. 
The  strained  and  damaged  bags  are  emptied  and  the  tainted 
coffee  "  skimmed"  off,  milled,  rebagged  and  sold  under 
the  head  of  "  Skimmings."  They  are  generally  branded 
"  G.  S."  (Good  skimmings),  "  G.  L.  S."  (Good  light 
skimmings),  "  G.  D.  S."  (Good  dark  skimmings),  "  F.  S." 
(Fair  skimmings),  and  "  S.  S."  (Store  or  ship  sweepings) 
Notwithstanding  their  origin  many  of  those  coffees  roast 
and  drink  exceedingly  well,  but  great  care  must  be  exer- 
cised by  the  dealer  in  selecting  them,  as  they  may  taste 
of  the  bilge-water  or  be  mixed  with  coal,  iron,  chips  and 
other  extraneous  substances. 

United  States  Coffee — The  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture at  Washington  has  recently  issued  a  circular  rela- 
tive to  the  possibility  of  coffee  culture  in  some  of  the 


1 84  OTHER  VARIETIES. 


Southern  States,  in  which  it  is  led  to  beheve  that  the 
soil  and  climatic  conditions  of  Texas,  Florida  and  Lower 
California  will  be  found  suitable  to  the  profitable  cultiva- 
tion of  coffee.  It  is  also  claimed  that  a  species  of  wild 
coffee  has  been  discovered  in  the  two  latter  States,  and 
that  in  California  seed  has  been  planted  obtained  from 
Costa  Rica  with  satisfactory  results.  A  coffee  planter 
from  Guatemala  has  recently  been  investigating  the  soil 
and  climate  of  San  Bernardino  in  Lower  California  with 
a  view  to  the  introduction  of  coffee  culture  in  that  sec- 
tion. The  conditions  there,  it  is  stated,  are  very  favorable 
for  its  profitable  production,  and  he  has  offered  to  invest 
capital  in  a  company  to  be  organized  to  start  the  industry. 


on^\.i^arK>*^  v^i 


^P^OFFEE  undergoes  essential  chemical  changes  in 
11  *  the  process  of  roasting.  In  the  raw  or  natural 
state  the  coffee-bean  is  tough  and  horny  in  struc- 
ture and  entirely  devoid  of  the  appearance,  character 
and  peculiar  aroma  that  so  distinguishes  it  in  the 
roasted  condition,  and  by  which  it  is  best  known  to 
the  public.  The  testa  or  investing  membrane  of  the 
raw  bean  has  a  layer  of  long  cells  with  a  peculiar  pitted 
structure,  containing  a  crystaline  substance  chemically 
termed  Caffeine,  and  another  known  as  Caffeic,  or  tannic 
acid,  while  the  inner  substance  consists  of  an  assem- 
blage of  vesicles  of  an  angular  form,  the  cavities  of 
which  include  in  the  form  of  little  drops  a  considerable 
quantity  of  a  highly  aromatic  oil  technically  termed 
Caffeone,  on  the  presence  and  amount  of  which  the 
fragrance  and  active  principles  of  the  coffee  depends, 
and  by  which  its  commercial  value  in  the  roasted  state  is 
estimated.  The  existence  of  this  "  coffee  oil  "  makes  itself 
known  in  a  striking  manner  by  roasting;  being  driven  out 
of  the  beans  by  the  intense  heat,  it  is  partially  volatilized 
and,  togetherwith  other  products  of  the  roasting,  produces 
the  characteristic  aroma  peculiar  to  roasted  coffee, 
an  odor  possessed  by  no  other  known  substance. 
In  the  operation  of  roasting  the  beans  swell  up  and 
open  at  the  furrow  by  the  liberation  of  the  gases  within 


l86  ILOASTING   AND    GLAZING. 

their  substance,  their  weight  decreasing,  but  volume 
increasing  in  proportion  to  the  extent  to  which  the  opera- 
tion is  carried,  developing  the  aromatic  oil  and  liberating 
at  the  same  time  a  portion  of  the  caffeine  from  its 
combinaticii  with  the  caffeic  or  tannic  acid.  The 
amount  of  this  aromatic  oil  contained  in  coffee  varies 
from  8  to  1 3  per  cent,  at  least,  one-half  of  which  is  lost 
by  evaporation  during  the  roasting  process,  so  that  it 
may  prove  a  paying  experiment  to  attempt  to  collect  it, 
especially  in  large  establishments  where  large  quantities 
of  coffee  are  roasted  and  several  pounds  of  this  valuable 
oil  are  dissipated  daily,  which  would  no  doubt  find  a 
ready  market  at  a  good  profit  for  the  making  of  liqueurs, 
or  medicinal  use. 

Before  being  roasted  coffee  also  contains  fron  6  to  8 
per  cent,  of  sugar,  which  after  roasting  is  reduced  to  as 
low  as  I  per  cent,  and  sometimes  even  to  zero,  from 
which  it  would  appear  that  the  description  of  sugar  (cane) 
present  in  the  raw  coffee  suffers  destruction  during  roast- 
ing, which,  however,  is  not  the  case,  as  in  the  process  of 
roasting  the  saccharine  matter  in  the  raw  bean  is  con- 
verted into  caramel.  A  change  in  the  fat  of  the  raw  coffee 
is  also  brought  about  by  the  roasting,  for  where  ether 
extracts  only  some  four  to  five  parts  of  fat  from  the  raw 
coffee  beans,  it  readily  extracts  double  that  quantity  from 
.the  roasted  beans.  So  striking  is  this  fact  that  Von  Bibra 
has  even  credited  the  roasting  process  with  the  produc- 
tion of  fat,  whereas  the  action  is  only  mechanical  in 
bursting  the  fat-cells  of  the  raw  bean,  thereby  rendering 
the  fat  accessible  to  the  solvent  action  of  the  ether. 

The  operation  of  roasting  also  tends  to  make  coffee 
soluble  in  boiling  water,  as  when  raw  coffee  is  perfectly 
exhausted  by  means  of  boiling  water,  it  yields  up  only  25 
per  cent,  which  passes  into  solution,  while  roasted  coffee, 


ROASTING   AND    GLAZING.  187 

on  the  other  hand,  when  completely  exhausted  by  means 
of  boiling  water  yields  readily  upwards  of  40  per  cent, 
of  soluble  matter,  proving  that  in  actually  using  coffee 
as  a  beverage,  we  are  not  in  the  habit  of  making  any- 
thing hke  a  complete  extraction,  as  only  some  lO  to  12 
per  cent,  of  the  active  principles  of  the  coffee  passes  into 
the  liquid. 

The  modern  appliances  for  the  roasting  of  coffee  are 
numerous  and  labor-saving  to  a  great  extent,  many  of 
them  are,  however,  calculated  only  to  enhance  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  bean,  while  others  enable  the  roaster  to 
obtain  almost  to  perfection  the  full  development  of  the 
aromatic  properties  of  the  coffee.  Coffee  is  roasted  for 
commercial  purposes  and  domestic  use  in  a  large  sheet- 
steel  or  malleable-iron  cylinder  mounted  on  a  hollow 
axle,  so  as  to  revolve  over  a  brisk  fire  and  allow  the  gases 
generated  during  the  torrefaction  to  escape.  The  surface 
of  the  cylinder  is  perforated  with  a  number  of  small  holes 
for  the  purpose  of  allowing  the  vapor  arising  from  the 
coffee  in  the  process  of  roasting  to  pass  off  readily,  and 
through  the  interior  runs  laterally  four  ridges,  the  object 
of  which  is  to  toss  it  about  in  all  directions,  causing  it 
to  pass  from  end  to  end,  and  diffuse  a  uniform  heat  to 
every  part  of  the  coffee  in  order  to  make  the  "roast" 
even  and  regular  in  appearance.  This  cylinder  is  again 
encased  in  a  frame  brick-work  at  the  bottom  of  which  is 
built  a  coal  fire  well  distributed  so  as  to  heat  all  portions 
of  the  cylinder  at  the  same  time  during  the  operation. 
On  the  outer  head  it  has  a  small  opening  through  which 
the  operator  occasionally  inserts  a  *'  tryer "  to  enable 
him  to  note  the  progress  made  as  the  process  advances, 
the  cylinder  being  also  so  arranged  that  it  can  be  drawn 
from  over  the  fire  when  it  is  required  to  either  fill  or 
empty  it  through  a  slide  or  hopper  in  the  centre.     It  is 


1 88  ROASTING  AND   GLAZING. 

operated  by  steam-power,  revolving  slowly  but  regularly, 
and  having  a  capacity  of  from  25  to  300  pounds. 

After  roasting,  the  coffee  is  run  off  into  a  large  wire- 
bottomed  box  termed  a  *^  cooler,"  to  the  end  of  which  i§ 
fitted  a  powerful  fan  or  "blower"  used  for  forcing  cold 
air  through  the  hot  beans  and  preventing  the  volatile  oil 
from  exuding,  the  coffee  being  thoroughly  agitated 
during  the  process,  the  hulls,  chaff  and  stems  being 
removed  meantime  to  a  large  extent  by  the  fan  and 
sieve.  Thirty-five  to  forty-five  minutes  is  usually  the  time 
consumed  in  the  operation,  the  former  for  a  "Light" 
and  the  latter  for  a  high  or  "  Dark  "  roast,  the  entire  pro- 
cess of  roasting,  cooling  and  rebagging  occupying  about 
one  hour.  In  roasting,  coffee  loses  in  weight  from  1 2  to  16 
per^  cent,  according  to  the  age  and  nature  of  the  coffee 
under  treatment  and  the  extent  to  which  the  operation  is 
carried,  the  average,  however,  being  14  per  cent,  for  old 
and  well-seasoned  coffee,  which  accounts  for  the  rela- 
tively higher  price — three  to  six  cents  per  pound — of 
roasted  coffees,  according  to  the  price  green  and  the  loss 
per  cent,  in  roasting.  But,  it  at  the  same  time  increases 
in  bulk — TOO  volumes  of  raw  coffee  yielding  from  150  to 
160  volumes  of  roasted — that  is,  two  pints  of  raw  beans 
will  yield  three  pints  roasted.  It  also  loses  from  i  to  2 
per  cent,  more  in  the  warm  months  of  summer  than  in  the 
damp  months  of  winter,  for  which  reason  it  should  not  be 
roasted  as  high  in  the  former  season  as  in  the  latter,  owing 
to  its  greater  tendency  to  sweat  and  absorb  the  higher 
temperature,  thus  causing  the  volatile  oil  to  exude,  and 
dissipate  and  impart  an  astringent  taste  to  the  infusion. 
When  coffee  is  roasted  light-brown,  or  until  it  assumes  a 
pale-chestnut  color,  the  loss  is  from  13  to  14  percent. the 
quantity  of  extract  obtained  from  such  roast  by  means 
of  boiling  water  ranging  from  20  to  21  per  cent,  of  the 


ROASTING  AND    GLAZING.  1 89 

weight,  while  the  loss  in  weight  of  the  extract  will  be 
much  larger  if  the  roasting  process  is  continued  until 
the  color  becomes  dark-brown  or  black  by  over-roasting. 
New,  moist  and  light  coffees  lose  a  larger  percentage  than 
old,  dry  and  solid  ones,  the  average  being  about  14  per 
cent.  The  operation  of  roasting  coffee  is  one  of  the  great- 
est exactness,  amounting  almost  to  an  art,  perfect  roasting 
requiring  not  alone  skill  and  judgment  but  experience 
and  constant  practice,  as  not  only  the  style,  strength  and 
flavor  but  also  the  commercial  value  of  the  coffee  depends 
upon  the  operator  deciding  when  it  is  properly  parched 
or  roasted.  It  is  also  one  of  a  crucial  nature,  for  equally 
by  insufficient  as  well  as  by  excessive  roasting,  much  of 
the  aroma  of  the  infusion  is  lost,  the  beverage  under 
either  of  these  circumstances  being  neither  agreeable  to 
the  palate  or  exhilarating  in  its  influence.  The  operator, 
for  these  reasons,  must  judge  of  the  exact  amount  of  heat 
required  for  the  adequate  roasting  of  the  different  varie- 
ties, which,  while  variable,  the  range  of  roasting  tempera- 
ture proper  for  roasting  the  various  grades  is  only  very 
narrow.  In  a  modern,  well-equipped  coffee-roasting 
establishment,  the  coffee  is  handled  almost  exclusively 
by  machinery,  being  fed  into  the  cylinder  from  hoppers, 
emptied  into  the  cooler  from  the  cylinder  and  from  thence 
into  the  bins  by  drafts  of  air  through  tubes  or  pocket- 
elevators,  so  that  the  coffee  is  scarcely  once  handled 
during  the  entire  process. 

The  entire  art  of  coffee  roasting  may  be  summed  up  in 
the  following  sequence:  (i)  Starting  the  machinery  in 
motion.  (2)  Starting  a  brisk  fire  with  enough  coal  for  a 
single  roast.  (3)  Putting  in  the  coffee  before  the  cylinder 
becomes  too  hot.  (4)  Opening  the  draft  and  keeping  up 
a  brisk  fire  during  what  is  termed  the  steaming  period. 
(5)   When  the  beans  begin  to   crackle  and  the  steam 


190  ROASTING   AND    GLAZING. 

*— " 

changes  into  an  aromatic  vapor,  rake  the  fire  well,  put 
on  sufficient  coal  to  make  the  next  roast  and  shut  off  the 
draft.  (6)  Empty  the  coffee  from  the  cylinder  into  the 
cooler  and  cool  off  rapidly,  then  sift  and  pack.  If  a  light 
color  is  required  roast  quickly,  if  a  dark,  slowly.  The 
exact  time  for  a  perfect  roast  under  these  rules  depend 
to  a  great  extent  on  the  size  of  the  cylinder,  the  quantity 
of  coffee  to  be  roasted,  the  amount  of  heat  and  the  color 
desired,  the  average  ranging  from  30  to  40  minutes.  The 
addition  of  a  little  water  to  the  coffee  when  it  begins  to 
crackle  in  the  cylinder,  will  cause  the  beans  to  swell  up, 
liberate  the  chaff  and  make  the  process  safer  by  extin- 
guishing any  sparks  that  may  by  accident  occur  in  the 
cylinder.  It  also  preserves  the  aroma  longer  to  some 
extent  when  used  in  moderation,  but  will  not,  as  is  some- 
times claimed,  protect  it  from  atmospheric  influences, 
but  on  the  contrary  makes  it  more  liable  to  such  influ- 
ences, particularly  when  used  in  excess. 

When  the  beans  begin  to  crackle  the  revolutions  of 
the  cylinder,  are  increased  for  a  short  time  in  order  to 
prevent  them  from  scorching  or  burning,  a  bluish  vapor 
is  emitted  at  the  same  time,  which  indicates  that  the 
coffee  is  nearly  if  not  quite  roasted.  At  this  stage  the 
operator  pours  on  the  coffee  a  quantity  of  water  to  pre- 
vent it  from  burning,  the  rapid  evaporation  from  which 
reduces  the  intense  heat  and  causes  the  beans  to  burst 
open  and  swell  up  to  about  double  in  size.  The  use  of 
a  little  lard  at  this  juncture  will  impart  to  the  beans  a 
smoother,  glossier  and  more  attractive  appearance.  The 
addition  of  water  in  the  roasting  of  coffee  is  not,  as  is 
generally  supposed,  intended  to  increase  its  weight — 
unless  when  used  to  excess — as  the  intense  heat  converts 
it  into  steam  which  rapidly  passes  off  in  the  air,  many 
old  roasters  contending  that  coffee  cannot  be  properly 


ROASTING  AND    GLAZING.  J01 

roasted  without  the  use  of  some  water.  In  the  proper 
roasting  of  coffee  a  strong,  well-distributed  heat  extend- 
ing the  entire  length  of  the  cylinder  is  imperative.  The 
cylinder  should  never  be  allowed  to  lie  empty  over  the 
fire  for  any  length  of  time  or  become  too  hot  before  the 
coffee  is  put  in,  as  the  beans  will  become  mottled  or 
"specked"  if  poured  in  while  in  that  condition,  thus 
detracting  from  the  appearance  and  value  of  the  roasted 
coffee. 

An  experienced  roaster  can  readily  discern  when  the 
coffee  is  properly  roasted,  by  the  light  bluish  vapor 
arising  from  the  coffee,  as  well  as  by  the  smell  of  the 
aromatic  principle  developed  as  it  evaporates  from  the 
cylinder  at  this  stage  of  the  operation,  without  even  once 
examining  it  during  the  process.  A  perfect  "  light  roast  " 
should  be  free  from  specks  and  other  blemishes,  of  a  cin- 
namon-brown color,  even,  uniform  and  oily  in  appearance, 
much  depending  on  the  amount  of  this  latter  property 
developed  in  the  process,  imparting  as  it  does  a  pleasanter 
and  more  agreeable  aroma  as  the  quantity  is  increased, 
making  the  liquor  blander  and  more  mellow  in  the  cup. 
While  a  perfect  high  or  "  dark  roast "  when  required 
should  be  of  a  deep  chestnut  or  chocolate-brown  color, 
oily  and  free  from  all  burnt  or  scorched  beans,  as  the 
latter,  no  matter  how  few  the  number,  invariably  spoil 
the  flavor  of  the  coffee  in  the  infusion,  irrespective  of  its 
fineness  or  value.  Over-roasting  dissipates  the  active 
principle  (Caffeine)  to  which  the  coffee  owes  its  refresh- 
ing and  stimulating  properties  while  under-roasting 
imparts  to  the  infusion  a  raw,  uncooked,  grassy  or 
astringent  flavor  by  not  properly  developing  it.  So  that 
the  finest  grades  of  coffee  when  imperfectly  roasted — that 
is,  be  under  or  overdone — yield  an  inferior  liquor  to  the 
poorer  grades  when  properly  roasted.     As  stated  before, 


J92  ROASTING   AND    GLAZING. 

coffee  contains  a  crystaline  substance  termed  caffeine 
(identical  with  the  theine  of  tea),  which  is  volatile  in 
its  nature,  and  every  care  must  be  taken  to  retain  this 
principle  in  the  coffee,  for  which  reason  the  beans  should 
be  roasted  only  until  they  are  of  a  pale-brown  color; 
again,  if  they  are  roasted  too  dark  this  essential  property 
is  destroyed. 

The  proper  cooling  of  coffee  after  roasting  is  also  an 
operation  of  great  importance.  If  the  coffee  has  been 
properly  roasted  and  the  beans  well  developed,  it  must  be 
cooled  quickly  to  prevent  them  from  becoming  too  dark- 
colored  or  mottled  in  appearance.  When  the  coffee  has 
been  cooled  and  cleaned  it  is  then  packed,  the  operations 
of  roasting,  cooling  and  rebagging  occupying  altogether 
about  one  hour. 

In  France  and  other  European  countries  it  is  the  cus- 
tom to  roast  coffee  in  small  quantities,  so  that  the  whole 
"charge"  is  well  under  the  control  of  the  operator  dur- 
ing the  process,  while  in  this  country  large  roasts  are  the 
rule,  in  dealing  with  which  much  difficulty  is  experienced 
in  producing  uniform  torrefaction  as  well  as  in  stopping 
the  process  at  the  proper  moment.  A  novel  method 
for  roasting  coffee  in  use  in  France  is  to  put  it  in  an 
iron  globe,  suspended  over  a  brisk  fire,  and  containing 
a  tubular  shaft  perforated  with  holes  smaller  than  the 
beans,  through  which  passes  the  vapor  generated  from 
the  coffee  in  the  process  of  roasting  and  issuing  out 
of  either  end  of  the  shaft  or  axis  of  the  globe.  As 
these  openings  are  small,  but  a  limited  amount  of  the 
vapor  escapes,  thus  confining  the  aroma  within  the  globe 
and  securing  the  retention  of  the  volatile  or  essential 
element  of  the  coffee  to  a  greater  degree  than  is  possible 
by  the  cylindrical  method  of  roasting.  When  the  globe 
is  filled  and  suspended  over  the  fire  an  iron  cap  is  placed 


ROASTING   AND    GLAZING.  I93 

/— ' 

over  it  so  as  to  completely  surround  it,  but  leaving  an 
intervening  space  between  it  of  about  three  inches,  the 
object  of  which  is  to  secure  the  full  power  of  the  heat, 
which  being  so  confined  circulates  completely  around  the 
globe,  the  retention  of  the  vapor  under  this  high  pressure 
preserving  to  a  still  greater  degree  the  aroma  of  the 
coffee.  The  application  of  the  heat  by  this  method  is 
very  uniform,  while  the  motion  of  the  globe  distributes 
the  beans  equally  about  the  interior  and  thus  removes 
any  possible  chance  of  scorching. 

The  roasting  process  also  usually  develops  in  many 
coffees  more  or  less  whitish  beans,  technically  termed 
"  quakers  "  but  more  properly  "  blights,"  being  in  reality 
blighted  or  immature  beans,  which,  having  ripened  to  an 
extent  on  the  tree  and  after  obtaining  a  certain  growth 
cease  to  draw  further  nutriment  from  it,  thus  failing  to 
develop  into  healthy  fruit.  These  peculiar  beans  detract 
considerably  from  the  value  of  the  coffee,  and  cannot  always 
be  detected  in  the  natural  state  except  by  experts  and 
others  accustomed  to  the  constant  handling  of  raw  coffee, 
but  in  the  roasted  condition  their  real  character  is  unmis- 
takably shown,  presenting  as  they  do  a  yellowish-white 
color,  totally  devoid  of  the  moisture,  oil  and  flavor  so 
characteristic  of  the  healthy  bean.  They  exist  to  a  much 
greater  extent  in  some  varieties  more  than  others,  most 
notably  in  lowland  and  coast-grown  coffees — in  mild 
grades  more  than  strong — the  only  kinds  most  unaffected 
being  mountain-grown  and  "  washed  "  coffees,  the 
blighted  beans  in  the  latter  rising  to  the  surface  in  the 
process  of  washing  and  carried  off  by  the  water.  Some 
authorities  contend  that  these  "  blights  "  or  '^  quakers  " 
in  coffee  instead  of  being,  as  might  be  naturally  expected, 
detrimental  or  injurious  to  its  drinking  qualities  really 
improve  it  by  softening  or  mellowing  what  may  otherwise 


t94  ROASTING  AND    GLAZING. 

prove  to  be  a  harsh  or  astringent  flavor,  thereby  ren- 
dering it  smoother  and  more  palatable.     Such  a  claim 
is  simply  preposterous,  as  the  said  beans  are  entirely 
devoid  of   any  of  the  properties  distinguishing  coffee, 
possessing    neither    caffeine   or  caffeone,  the  two  prin- 
cipal constituents   of  coffee,  and   an   infusion  prepared 
exclusively  of  "  quakers "  will  be  found   to   resemble 
more  closely,  in  flavor  and  aroma,  a  decoction  made  from 
roasted  peanuts  than  anything  else  it  may  be  likened  to. 
Raw  coffees  are  distinguished  in   commerce   by  the 
names  of  the  countries,  districts,  localities,  plantations 
in  which  they  are  grown  or  from  the  ports  of  export, 
and   it   is   found  that   the   produce   of  each  particular 
country  and  respective  district  maintains  a  fairly  constant 
and  distinctive  flavor  and  character  of  its  own.     While 
in  the  roasted  state  this  distinctive  character  disappears, 
the  process  of  roasting  largely  destroying  these  distin- 
guishing features  of  raw  or  green  coffee,  making  it  very 
difficult  for  any  but  experts  to  determine  from  its  appear- 
ance when  once  roasted  its  kind  or  origin.     After  coffee 
has  been  once  roasted  it  should  be  kept  in  air-tight  bins 
and  sold  or  used  as  fresh-roasted  as  possible,  as  after  the 
process  the  aroma  constantly  escapes,  thereby  losing  its 
strength  and  fragrance  rapidly  on  exposure  to  the  oxydiz- 
ing  influences  of  the  atmosphere.     Neither  should  it  be 
exposed   in   damp  or  humid  weather,  as  it  constantly 
absorbs  moisture  which  makes  it  tough  and  difficult  to 
grind,  or  placed  in  the  vicinity  of  any  foul  or  foreign 
odors,  the  porous  and  sensitive  nature  of  the  roasted 
bean  making  it  liable  to  absorb  such  flavors,  for  which 
reason  wooden  and  freshly-painted  bins  should  never  be 
used  to  hold  roasted  coffee,  as  it  readily  absorbs  the  wood 
and  paint  flavors,  which  become  very  pronounced  in  the 
infusion.  , 


GLAZING.  195 


It  has  been  the  custom  for  some  years  back  to  coat  or 
glaze  coffee  with  certain  gluey  or  starchy  compounds, 
ostensibly  to  protect  the  beans  from  the  oxydizing  influ- 
ences of  the  atmosphere,  preserve  the  aroma  and  clarify 
the  liquor  in  preparation,  each  roaster  and  dealer  having 
a  different  compound  for  the  purpose.  It  is  most  gener- 
ally composed  of  various  glues,  moss  and  other  starchy 
substances  and  is  usually  prepared  by  placing  the  mate- 
rials composing  the  compound  in  a  cask,  vat  or  tank 
filled  with  boiling  water  conveyed  through  pipes  or  by 
injecting  steam,  thoroughly  stirring  it  at  the  same  time 
until  it  is  mixed  to  the  requisite  consistency.  After  the 
solution  is  prepared  it  is  applied  to  the  coffee  while  hot, 
generally  in  the  cylinder  while  revolving,  which  diffuses 
the  material  and  imparts  an  even  and  uniform  coating 
to  the  coffee,  adhering  and  hardening  as  it  cools.  But 
the  claims  made  by  roasters  and  others  who  coat  or 
glaze  coffee,  that  large  quantities  of  eggs  are  used  exclu- 
sively in  the  preparation  of  the  glazing  compound  is 
simply  absurd,  as  is  also  the  claim  that  it  is  resorted  to 
for  the  purpose  of  closing  the  pores,  to  protect  and  retain 
the  aroma  and  for  self-settling  purposes.  The  real  object 
being  to  conceal  defects,  disguise  low  grades  and  damaged 
coffees,  as  well  as  to  add  weight  and  color  to  light,  chaffy 
and  "quakery"  coffees,  the  process  adding  all  the  way 
from  5  to  10  per  cent,  to  the  weight,  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  coffee  and  the  character  of  the  substance 
used ;  hght,  chaffy-bean  coffees  absorbing  more  of  the 
material  than  the  hard  and  solid  ones,  while  the  softer 
and  rougher  the  bean  the  more  it  improves  in  appearance 
by  the  process. 


196  GLAZING. 


What  is  known  as  the  "  Egg-glaze  "  is  prepared  from 
eggs  alone,  mashed  and  applied  after  the  coffee  has  been 
first  cooled,  and  then  baked  on  by  means  of  a  hot  blast, 
when  it  forms  a  hard,  transparent  shell,  protecting  the 
coffee  until  it  is  ground  and  ready  for  use ;  and  also 
serving  to  clarify  the  liquor  in  the  pot  after  infusion. 
Another  composed  of  one  part  gum  arable  dissolved 
in  water,  to  which  is  added  four  parts  starch,  with  suffi- 
cient water  to  make  it  limped,  the  whole  being  boiled 
for  upwards  of  twenty  minutes,  and  which  is  best  accom- 
plished by  inserting  a  small  pipe  of  live  steam  from  the 
boiler  into  the  compound  until  it  is  reduced  to  the  con- 
sistency of  cream ;  then,  after  stirring  well,  it  is  poured 
on  the  coffee  while  in  the  cylinder  as  it  revolves,  or  it 
may  be  spread  over  it  while  in  the  cooler,  if  proper  care 
be  taken  to  diffuse  it  well.  Still  another  excellent  com- 
pound for  glazing  coffee  is  prepared  from  one  part  Irish 
moss,  one  part  gelatine,  one  part  isinglass,  one  ounce 
sugar  and  two  dozen  eggs,  the  first  three  ingredients 
being  first  boiled  in  water,  then  strained  and  applied  as  in 
foregoing  formula.  For  the  purpose  of  imparting  a  lus- 
trous aspect  to  roasted  coffee,  a  liquid  has  recently  been 
invented,  the  composition  of  which  is  so  far  unknown. 
It  has  a  specific  gravity  of  0.868  at  15  degrees,  burning 
with  a  sooty  flame  and  leaving  no  fixed  residue.  It 
absorbs  no  iodine  when  treated,  and  is  but  little  affected 
by  chromic  acid  or  concentrated  sulphuric  acid,  taking 
only  a  slight  color  when  treated  with  the  latter.  It  is  clear 
and  oily  in  appearance,  but  entirely  free  from  color,  taste, 
or  smell,  and  mixes  in  all  proportions  with  petroleum, 
from  which  fact  it  would  appear  to  be  nothing  more  than 
a  highly  purified  petroleum  oil,  in  which  case  it  must 
be  classed  among  the  illegitimate  additions  to  roasted 
coffee.  ' 


GRINDING.  197 


The  process  of  grinding  the  roasted  bean  is  also  one 
that  requires  more  attention  than  is  generally  bestowed 
on  it.  Coarse-ground  coffees  require  protracted  boil- 
ing in  order  to  extract  its  full  strength,  and  too  much 
boiling  is  fatal  to  the  production  of  good  coffee  in  the 
cup.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  it  may  be  ground  too  fine, 
so  that  just  to  what  degree  of  fineness  it  should  be  ground 
depends  in  a  great  measure  on  the  method  of  preparing 
it  for  use. 


CHJVF^E>I^   \riT. 


V  N  commerce  coffee  is  to  be  met  with  in  three  condi- 
II  tions — Raw  or  unroasted,  Roasted  and  Ground — 
^^  and,  as  may  be  inferred,  it  is  in  the  latter  condition 
that  it  is  most  liable  to  the  chief  adulterations,  so  that  with 
the  raw  and  simply  roasted  coffee  the  public  analyst  will 
have  very  little  to  do,  his  services  being  principally 
required  in  dealing  with  ground  coffee  alone.  But  at  the 
same  time  it  is  also  subject  to  much  manipulation  and 
sophistication  in  the  two  first  conditions  also,  scarcely 
any  dietic  article  being  so  persistently  adulterated. 
From  the  time  of  picking  and  preparing  coffee  for 
market  until  it  finally  reaches  the  table  of  the  consumer, 
there  is  probably  no  article  of  diet  subjected  to  more  or 
as  many  forms  of  manipulation,  sophistication,  substitu- 
tion and  adulteration  as  coffee.  The  producer  mixes  one 
variety  with  another,  the  refuse  of  the  old  and  inferior 
with  the  new  and  choice,  while  the  commission  agent  at 
the  shipping  ports  manipulates  it  again  by  changing  the 
grade  or  altering  the  quality  by  running  one  grade  with 
another  in  order  to  complete  his  consignment.  Again, 
on  its  arrival  in  the  consuming  countries  it  is  frequently 
emptied  out  of  the  original  packages,  separated  or  run 
together  as  required,  the  bags  turned  inside  out,  and  the 
marks  altered  in  order  to  conceal  any  stained  or  damaged 


200  RAW  OR   GREEN   COFFEES. 

in  transit.  All  "  bilge-water  "  or  otherwise  damaged  coffee 
being  picked  over,  the  musty  beans  set  aside,  milled  or 
cleaned,  rematted  or  rebagged  as  the  case  may  be,  and 
eventually  sold  as  sound,  but  which  no  process  of  roast- 
ing or  glazing  can  eradicate.  But  while  almost  all  varie- 
ties pass  through  more  or  less  manipulation  or  substitu- 
tion, from  the  producing  to  the  consuming  countries,  it 
does  not  always  follow  that  it  is  detrimental  to  the  coffee. 


Rios — Are  most  subject  to  sophistication  by  altering  the 
color  from  light  to  green  and  dark  to  meet  the  demand 
for  each  particular  kind,  the  light  Rios  being  converted 
into  dark  by  the  application  of  a  preparation  of  "  bone 
black,"  and  into  yellow  or  golden  by  the  use  of  chromate 
of  lead,  or  into  green  by  a  combination  composed  of 
both  compounds.  This  dangerous  and  iniquitous  prac- 
tice is  resorted  to  in  order  to  cater  to  the  prejudices  of 
dealers  and  consumers  in  the  different  sections  of  the 
country  for  "Light,"  "Dark,"  "Green"  and  "Golden 
Rios,"  as  the  case  maybe.  The  cosmetic  is  best  detected 
by  the  simple  process  of  washing  in  a  little  warm  water 
and  rubbing  with  a  dry  towel,  exposing  the  natural  color 
of  the  bean,  whatever  the  original  may  be,  or  by  cutting 
the  bean  in  half  and  seeing  if  the  color  runs  through. 

Maracaibos — In  the  raw  or  natural  state  are  princi- 
pally substituted  with  large,  white-bean  Santos,  Savanilla, 
San  Domingo,  Mexican,  Salvador  or  other  Central  Ameri- 
can coffees  as  well  as  by  transferring  the  lower  into  high- 
grade  bags.  While  La  Guayras  are  usually  polished  or 
"  soapstoned,"  and  converted  into  Rios  when  the  finer 
grades  of  the  latter  are  scarce  or  high. 


RAW   OR   GREEN   COFFEES.  20I 

Javas — Are     generally     either    substituted,    mixed, 
sweated  or  colored  artificially.     In  the  first  case   any 
large,  whitish,  yellowish  or  brownish  variety,  such  as 
Maracaibo,  Savanilla  and  Santos  is  used  for  the  purpose 
or  mixed  with  it  in  the  natural  state,  and  can  only  be 
detected  by  a  familiar  knowledge  of  the  genuine  bean. 
The  lower  and  paler  grades  of  Java,  such  as  Lahats  and 
Maccassars   are   usually   "colored"   or   "sweated"  for 
the  purpose  of  imparting  an  aged  appearance  or  the  so 
much  desired  brown  color,  other  spongy-bean   coffees 
that  easily  absorb,  and  retain  the  coloring  matter  being 
frequently  subjected  to  the  same  processes.     While  the 
higher  grades  are  more  often   substituted  one  for  the 
other  by  changing  the  mats,  such  as  replacing  a  Preanger 
with  a  Timour,  an  Ankola  with  Padang  or  Singapore. 
When  simply  colored  as  before  described  the  washing 
it  with  a  little  water  and  rubbing  with  a  dry  towel  will 
expose  the  cosmetic,  or  better  still  by  cutting  the  sus- 
pected  bean  open  with  a  sharp  pocket-knife,  examining 
it  through ;   if  not   of  the  same  color  to   the  core   it 
is  undoubtedly  doctored.     Another  method,  when  the 
coffee  is  mixed  with  Savanilla  or  other  light  bean  coffee,  is 
to  place  a  sample  of  the  suspected  coffee  on  top  a  vessel 
of  water,  in  which  case  the  hard,  solid-bean  Java  will  sink 
to  the  bottom  and  the  Hght-bean  substitute  float  on  top. 
"  Sweated "    Javas   are   browned   by   placing   any   fair- 
sized,    light-colored   variety  such  as  Lahat,   Maccassar, 
ordinary  Jamaica  or  Savanilla  in  a  zinc  or  iron-lined 
room  or  case  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  pipes,  through 
which  steam  passes  and  subjecting  them  to  an  intense 
heat,  the  process  causing  the — whatever  little  volatile  oil 
this  class  of   coffee  contains — to  exude  and   impart   a 
dark,  muddy-red  color  to  the  beans.     This  sophistication 
is  best  detected  by  the  unnatural,  repulsively  reddish 


202  RAW  OR  GREEN   COFFEES. 

color  produced  by  the  process,  by  their  light  weight  and 
irregular,  unsightly  appearance  in  the  hand  as  well  as  by 
their  nauseous,  almost  sickening  flavor,  developed  by  the 
volatile  oil  and  the  zinc,  and  which  is  evidently  prejudicial 
to  the  health  of  the  consumer. 

Mocha  Coffee. — Probably  there  is  no  single  variety 
of  coffee  grown  more  generally  counterfeited  or  adulter- 
ated than  Mocha  in  the  raw  or  unroasted  state,  owing  to 
its  limited  supply  and  high  commercial  value.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  manipulation  and  substitution  which  it  under- 
goes at  the  ports  of  export,  by  the  addition  or  substitution 
of  small-bean  Wynaad,  Malabar,  Ceylon,  Bourbon  and 
other  African  varieties  annually  shipped  to  Aden  for  the 
specific  purpose  of  conversion  into  Mocha,  that  it  has 
become  a  difficult  matter  to  determine  what  is  true 
Mocha  and  what  is  not.  The  substitutes  are  first 
separated  from  the  regular  crops  and  then  carefully 
picked  over  and  assorted  by  hand,  the  better  to  adapt 
them  to  their  respective  markets,  and  then  packed  in  the 
unique  and  peculiar  packages  which  distinguish  the  true 
article  from  all  others.  It  had  at  one  time  been  con- 
sidered as  next  to  impossible  to  tamper  with  or  imitate 
these  packages  without  detection,  composed  as  they  are 
of  a  coarse  vegetable  material,  sewed  with  a  fibrous  sub- 
stance that  becomes  excessively  hard  and  tough  by  age ; 
but  modern  ingenuity  has  found  a  way  in  the  countries 
of  consumption  to  cut  this  "  Gordian  knot,"  first  by  a 
process  known  to  the  initiated  as  "  stove-piping,"  by 
which  a  portion  of  the  genuine  coffee  is  run  out  of  the 
original  package  with  an  iron  tube  resembling  a  "  coffee 
tryer,"  inserted  at  one  end  of  the  bale  and  a  spurious 
article  composed  of  some  small-bean  variety,  such  as 
Santos,  Maracaibo  or  Guatemala,  poured  in  its  place  and 


RAW  OR  GREEN  COFFEES.  203 

the  puncture  closed  up.  Another  Ingenious  method  is  to 
soften  the  fibrous  cord  of  which  the  withes  are  made, 
and  with  which  the  bales  are  sewn,  by  a  process  known 
as  "  steaming,"  by  which  they  are  softened  and  drawn 
out,  the  bales  being  easily  opened  entire  and  the  contents 
substituted  by  the  introduction  of  one  or  other  of  the 
same  class  of  coffees  already  mentioned,  and  even  by 
small-bean  Rios,  particularly  when  the  former  kinds  are 
high  or  difficult  to  procure.  These  glaring  forms  of 
adulteration  and  substitutions  practiced  in  Mocha  coffee 
may  be  readily  detected  by  a  comparison  of  the  mixture 
or  contents  with  a  sample  of  the  genuine  bean,  which  is 
invariably  small,  round,  uniform  and  symmetrical,  varying 
in  color  from  a  rich  olive-green  cast,  almost  translucent 
when  new,  and  a  bright-yellowish  hue  when  old,  being 
at  the  same  very  clean,  and  attractive  in  the  hand.  While 
the  adulterants  and  substitutes  are  much  larger,  more 
irregular  and  varying  in  size,  style,  form  and  color,  from 
a  dark  or  grass-green  to  a  pale  white,  according  to  the 
age  and  nature  of  the  coffee  used. 

There  has  recently  been  discovered  another  and  very 
ingenuous  coffee  fraud,  in  which  the  raw  beans  look  quite 
natural,  but  yield  no  coffee  liquor  on  infusion.  On  close 
inspection  these  spent  or  exhausted  beans  resemble  arti- 
ficial coffee  beans  composed  of  baked  dough  colored,  but 
a  microscopical  examination  disproves  this  supposition. 
The  beans  are  genuine  coffee  beans,  but  the  cells  show  a 
remarkable  freedom  from  caffeine  and  the  oil  of  coffee, 
indicating  that  they  had  been  steeped  in  water,  so  that  on 
the  microscopical  examination  being  supplemented  by  a 
chemical  analysis,  the  result  showed  that  almost  every 
valuable  property  of  the  coffee  had  been  removed  from  the 
beans,  evidently  for  medicinal  purposes  or  the  manufacture 
of  some  extract  of  coffee,  after  which  they  are  re-dried  and 


204  ROASTED  COFFEES. 


disposed  of  to  roasters  and  unscrupulous  dealers  as  sound 
coffee.  The  beans  of  such  coffee  look  quite  natural,  but 
on  close  inspection  are  found  to  be  tough  and  light, 
yielding  a  watery  and  flavorless  liquid  on  infusion.  A 
patent  has  also  been  recently  obtained  the  purpose  of 
which  is  to  impart  to  coffee  beans  by  a  summary  opera- 
tion the  properties  and  characteristics  possessed  by  coffee 
which  has  been  stored  and  kept  under  favorable  condi- 
tions for  a  comparatively  long  period  of  time.  The  pro- 
cess of  maturing  or  "  aging "  the  coffee  consisting  in 
spreading  out  the  raw  beans  in  a  thin  layer  between 
alternate  layers  of  damp  bags  or  other  textile  material 
first  by  sprinkling  a  number  of  bags  with  water,  and 
piling  them  one  on  top  of  the  other  until  they  have  all 
become  uniformly  moistened,  then  spreading  out  one  of 
the  bags  and  laying  on  it  a  dry  bag  upon  which  is  placed 
a  layer  of  green  coffee,  another  dry  bag  being  placed 
over  it  and  a  damp  bag  on  that  again,  and  so  on  to  any 
desired  height.  The  pile  of  bags  and  coffee  thus  formed 
is  then  compressed  in  order  that  the  dry  bags  may  absorb 
the  moisture  from  the  damp  bags  and  also  become  damp, 
thus  maintaining  the  coffee  beans  in  their  confined  space 
until  the  desired  maturing  or  aging  effect  has  been  pro- 
duced. 

Are  chiefly  sophisticated  by  mixing  or  substituting 
lower  with  high-grade  coffees,  and  by  coating  or  glazing 
the  beans  with  some  obnoxious  compounds  as  previously 
described.  Many  of  the  so-called  Javas  and  other 
high-sounding-name  coffees  now  in  the  market  so  much 
vaunted  and  extolled  being  nothing  more  than  combina- 
tions of  Santos,  Maracaibo  and  other  medium  grades, 
some  of  the  most  reputable  consisting  merely  of  Santos 
and  Java  in  the  proportions  of  40  per  cent,  of  the  former 


ROASTED  COFFEES.  20$ 


to  60  per  cent,  of  the  latter.  The  distinguishing  features 
of  the  raw  or  natural  bean  being  largely  altered  in  the 
process  of  roasting,  making  it  a  difficult  matter  for  any 
but  experts  to  detect  this  most  common  form  of  adultera- 
tion, an  acquaintance  with  the  original  flavors  of  the 
different  varieties  being  the  only  sure  means  of  detection. 
Some  years  since,  there  was  invented  a  bean  resem- 
bling that  of  roasted  coffee,  made  from  dyed  plas- 
ter of  paris,  which  was  intended  for  admixture  with 
coffee,  and  at  the  present  time  a  far  more  dangerous 
fraud  is  being  perpetrated  in  the  already  too  wide  field  of 
coffee  adulteration.  It  is  that  of  a  bogus  or  artificial 
bean,  resembling  that  of  whole  roasted  coffee,  which,  on 
analysis,  proves  to  be  largely  composed  of  wheat  flour, 
mixed  with  a  glutinous  compound  of  cracker  dust,  paste 
and  molasses,  moulded  in  the  form  of  the  true  coffee 
bean  of  commerce  and  flavored  with  a  weak  solution  of 
caramel  or  chocolate.  These  spurious  coffee  beans  are 
not,  however,  intended  to  supply  in  themselves  a  beverage 
which  from  any  similarity  of  appearance,  taste  or  effect 
might  form  a  substitute  for  coffee  and  cannot  therefore  be 
regarded  as  such,  but  are  intended  solely  as  an  adulterant 
of  whole  roasted  coffee.  It  is  readily  detected  by  close 
inspection  in  the  hand,  but  still  more  so  in  the  cup, 
tasting  as  it  does  more  like  a  decoction  made  from  burnt 
dough  and  molasses.  When  dissolved  in  boiling  water 
it  yields  a  blackish,  muddy  liquor  akin  to  slop,  leaving 
a  thick,  greasy  residue  in  the  bottom  of  the  vessel. 
The  custom  of  coating  or  "  glazing,"  now  so  much  in 
vogue  among  roasters  and  dealers,  may  also  be  classed 
among  the  many,  but  milder  forms  of  adulteration,  which, 
though  ostensibly  claimed  to  protect  the  pores  of  the 
coffee  from  the  oxydizing  influences  of  the  atmosphere, 
preserve  its   aroma,  and  at  the  same  time  clarify  the 


2o6  GROUND  COFFEES. 


infusion,  is  in  reality,  in  nearly  all  cases,  resorted  to  for 
the  purpose  of  disguising  or  concealing  the  defects  of 
artificially-colored,  stained,  damaged  and  immature  or 
"quakery"  coffees,  or  for  adding  an  extra  weight  of 
from  5  to  6  per  cent,  to  it. 

Are  subject  to  the  most  extensive  adulterations,  all" 
being  more  or  less  sophisticated  or  adulterated  in  one 
form  or  another,  chief  among  which  is  th^t  of  the  admix- 
ture of  the  roasted  and  ground  roots  of  Chicory,  Dande- 
lion, Carrot,  Parsnip,  Beet  and  other  leguminous  vege- 
tables. Peas,  Beans,  Rye,  Rice,  Wheat,  Barley  and 
various  other  cereal  grains,  including  the  seeds  of  the 
broom,  fenugreek,  iris  and  acorn.  These  various  roots 
and  seeds,  with  many  more  similar  substances,  have  not 
only  been  used  as  adulterants,  but  under  various  high- 
sounding  names  several  of  them  have  been  introduced 
as  substitutes  for  coffee.  But  so  far  not  a  single  one  of 
them  have  either  merited  or  obtained  any  success  as 
such,  their  sole  effect  being  to  bring  coffee  into  unde- 
served disrepute  as  a  pleasing  and  agreeable  beverage 
with  the  public. 

Among  the  numerous  substitutes  and  adulterants  in  use 
for  coffee  may  be  mentioned  first : — 

Rye  Coffee. — Prepared  from  roasted  rye  and  a  little 
butter  ground  fine,  and  put  up  in  packages. 

Rice  Coffee. — Made  from  roasted  rice  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  former  and  considered  a  very  good  sub- 
stitute. - 


SUBSTITUTES   AND   ADULTERANTS.  207 

I -     .  . 

Malt  Coffee. — A  preparation  made  from  malt,  which 
is  first  soaked  in  water  at  40  degrees  and  dried  in  a 
coffee  roaster  until  the  grains  assume  a  glossy-brown 
color  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  the  coffee  of  commerce, 
the  finished  product,  when  ground  and  infused,  is  claimed 
to  be  a  passable  coffee  substitute. 

Currant  Coffee. — Manufactured  from  the  seeds  of 
that  fruit,  washed  out  of  the  cake  left  in  making  currant 
wine,  then  roasted  and  ground,  but  principally  used  as  an 
adulterant. 

Gooseberry  Coffee. — Prepared  from  the  seeds  of 
that  fruit  in  the  same  manner  and  used  as  an  adulterant 
also. 

Holly  Coffee — Is  made  from  the  berries  of  the  com- 
mon holly,  roasted  and  moistened  with  a  little  lemon 
juice. 

Acorn  Coffee — Is  prepared  from  acorns,  deprived  of 
their  shells,  husked,  dried  and  roasted  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  regular  coffee. 

Sassafras  Coffee. — Manufactured  from  the  fruit  or 
root  of  that  plant,  or  from  the  bark,  cut  up,  dried  and 
roasted,  the  decoction  being  very  wholesome,  and  a 
specific  for  skin  diseases. 

Beechmast  Coffee. — Made  from  the  roasted  and 
ground  roots  of  the  beechmast,  and  also  claimed  to  be 
very  wholesome. 

Beet-root  Coffee. — Principally  used  as  an  adulterant; 
is  prepared  from  the  yellow  beet-root,  sliced,  dried  in  an 
oven  and  ground  with  genuine  coffee. 

Almond  Coffee — Is  made  from  either  rye  or  wheat, 
roasted  with  almonds  and  a  very  small  quantity  of  cassia 
buds,  making  a  very  good  substitute. 


2o8  SUBSTITUTES   AND    ADULTERANTS. 

Bean  Coffee — Is  prepared  from  ordinary  horse-beans, 
roasted  along  with  a  little  honey  and  burnt  sugar,  a  small 
quantity  of  cassia  buds  being  frequently  added  when 
removed  from  the  fire,  the  whole  being  stirred  until  cold. 

German  Coffee — Is  chiefly  made  from  chicory 
roasted  and  ground  fine,  and  used  either  as  a  substitute 
or  an  adulterant  of  the  regular  coffee  of  commerce. 

Coffee-pulp  Coffee. — In  Arabia  the  pulp  of  the  ber- 
ries, which  constitutes  about  twenty  per  cent,  of  the  pre- 
pared coffee,  is  dried  and  shriveled  up  by  a  method 
peculiar  to  Arabia.  This  product  is  known  by  the  dis- 
tinct name  of  Kishr^  a  decoction  of  which  forms  the  com- 
mon beverage  of  the  poorer  Arabs. 

French  Coffee. — What  is  known  and  celebrated  as 
'*  French  Coffee  "  is  made  from  a  mixture  of  coffee  and 
caramel,  which  must  be  packed  in  tins,  as  otherwise  the 
hygroscopic  properties  of  the  caramel  will  cause  it  to 
absorb  moisture,  and  thereby  run  to  decomposition. 

Felotas  Coffee — Is  also  prepared  from  ground 
acorns  and  sold  under  the  name  of  Pelotas,  but  is  exceed- 
ingly dark  in  liquor,  wild  and  insipid  in  flavor. 

Corsican  Coffee — Is  made  from  the  roasted  seeds  of 
the  Knee-holly,  and  used  extensively  on  that  island  as  a 
substitute  for  the  regular  coffee  of  commerce. 

Egyptian  Coffee — Is  prepared  from  the  common 
Chick-pea  roasted,  ground  and  mixed  with  genuine 
coffee  in  equal  parts,  being  more  of  an  adulterant  than 
a  substitute. 

Mesquite  Coffee. — It  has  been  recently  claimed  that 
a  species  of  coffee  may  be  produced  from  the  "  Mesquite 
plant "  found  growing  in  wild  abundance  in  Texas,  Ari- 
zona and  New  Mexico,  but  so  far  no  positive  results  have 
been  reported.  , 


SUBSTITUTES   AND    ADULTERANTS.  209 

Dandelion  Coffee. — The  root  of  the  Dandelion,  firs*: 
dried,  roasted  and  ground,  is  also  extensively  used  as  a 
substitute  for  coffee,  and  is  claimed  by  many  physicians 
to  be  much  preferable  to  chicory  for  that  purpose,  its 
infusion,  decoction  and  extract  being  frequently  employed 
as  a  tonic  and  aperient,  especially  in  disorders  of  the 
liver  and  digestive  organs. 

Spent  Coffee — Prepared  from  "exhausted"  coffee 
grounds  which  are  dried  and  re-atomized  by  the  trans- 
forming hand  of  modern  chemistry,  put  up  in  shiny  pack- 
ages under  seductive  titles,  and  from  which  the  deluded 
and  over-confiding  consumer  endeavors  to  extract  a 
desired  beverage. 

Mussen,da  Coffee. — A  patent  has  recently  been 
granted  in  France,  the  object  of  which  is  to  substitute 
the  berry  of  the  Mussenda  plant  for  the  various  sub- 
stances now  used  for  mixing  with  ground  coffees,  by 
which  the  berries  are  roasted  with  the  coffee  in  any 
desired  proportions,  usually  from  }^  to  ^  Mussenda,  or 
^  coffee  to  3^  Mussenda.  During  the  roasting  process 
a  small  quantity  of  Caramel  is  added  to  improve  the 
flavor,  the  compound  being  then  ground  and  put  up  in 
cans,  possessing  at  least  one  good  recommendation, 
that  of  not  containing  any  injurious  properties. 

Canada  Peas — Which  is  the  most  extensive  form 
of  adulteration,  are  first  roasted  in  the  same  manner  as 
coffee,  but  requiring  a  much  longer  time  and  more 
care,  as  the  shell  of  the  pea  does  not  assume  a  coffee- 
color  until  the  inside  is  overdone,  and  must  be  judged 
by  the  inside  appearance,  being  brittle  and  a  little  darker 
when  broken  than  coffee,  but  when  ground  they  are 
dry  and  dusty,  on  which  account  they  make  an  excel- 
lent compound  with  chicory,  keeping   it  from  forming 


2IO  SUBSTITUTES   AND   ADULTERANTS. 

into  lumps  and  making  it  assume  a  uniform  color. 
Wheat,  rye  or  barley  may  be  substituted  or  added  to 
this  compound  without  affecting  it,  the  method  of  treat- 
ment being  identical.  There  being  but  little  aroma  to 
protect  and  none  to  save,  the  virtue  of  this  compound 
lies  altogether  in  the  healthy  properties  of  the  cereal 
used,  not  in  the  flavor  of  the  liquid. 

Essence  of  Coffee — Is  simply  an  article  of  manufac- 
ture, containing  no  coffee,  but  intended  for  use  with 
coffee  for  the  purpose  of  imparting  color  and  as  a  clarify- 
ing agent.  It  may  be  prepared  at  will  from  any  cereal 
before  named,  bread  raspings  or  burnt  cracker  dust,  but 
is  chiefly  composed  of  carbonized  corn,  that  is,  corn 
roasted  to  blackness.  The  material  from  which  it  may 
be  prepared  is  first  roasted,  ground  fine  and  spread  out 
thinly  over  a  large  surface,  and  then  covered  with  burnt 
sugar  or  molasses  while  boiling  hot,  the  whole  forming  a 
large  cake,  which  when  thoroughly  cooled  is  broken  into 
pieces  and  reground  in  an  iron  mill  until  reduced  to  a 
dust,  after  which  it  is  put  up  in  packages  or  barrels  for 
use  in  coffee.  It  is  also  used  extensively  as  an  adulter- 
ant in  ground  coffee,  and  when  made  from  good  stock  it 
is  not  objectionable,  possessing  excellent  coloring,  sweet- 
ening and  clarifying  properties. 

Coffee-leaf  Coffee. — A  decoction  made  from  the 
leaves  of  the  coffee  shrub  has  long  been  used  in  the 
Eastern  Archipelago,  and  has  more  recently  been  intro- 
duced among  the  coolies  of  southern  India,  and  a  few 
years  since  attracted  considerable  notice,  being  recom- 
mended as  a  new  article  of  import  to  become  a  cheap 
substitute  for  tea.  There  seems  to  be  no  doubt  that 
coffee  leaves  contain  the  principle  coffeine  in  sufficient 
abundance  for  the  making  of  a  valuable  beverage,  but 


SUBSTITUTES   AND   ADULTERANTS.  2H 

the  presence  of  an  unpleasant  senna-like  odor  militates 
greatly  against  its  popularity  as  a  regular  drink,  and  there 
exists  also  the  difficulty  that  of  depriving  the  tree  of  its 
foliage  damages  the  crop  of  berries  and  injures  the  tree 
itself.  On  berry-producing  trees  therefore  only  the 
leaves  obtained  in  the  ordinary  pruning  operations  would 
be  available,  and  these  would  seem  to  yield  so  small  a 
supply  as  not  to  be  worth  the  cost  of  collection,  while 
growing  the  shrubs  for  the  leaves  alone  would  be  a  very 
questionable  undertaking.  Yet  there  appears  to  be  no 
valid  reason  why  in  the  event  of  the  berry  crop  failing  a 
portion  at  least  of  the  leaves  might  not  be  gathered  and 
prepared  in  the  form  of  coffee  if  any  means  can  be 
invented  for  removing  the  objectionable  odor. 

Whey  Coffee — Another  very  novel  substitute  for 
coffee  is  prepared  of  whey  from  milk,  which  is  evaporated 
down  in  open  vessels  or  vacuum  pans  until  most  of  the 
water  is  driven  off  and  a  thick  paste  remains.  During  the 
process  the  whey  is  kept  constantly  stirred,  the  stirring 
being  continued  until  the  pasty  mass  becomes  cold,  when  it 
is  rolled  into  cakes  and  dried  at  a  temperature  of  boiling 
water,  after  which  it  is  broken  up  and  moulded  into 
pieces  about  the  size  and  form  of  coffee  beans.  The 
next  operation  is  that  of  roasting,  which  is  more  prefer- 
ably performed  by  first  mixing  them  with  an  equal  quan- 
tity of  raw  coffee,  the  roasting  process  thus  turning  the 
whey-paste  beans  into  a  rich  brown  color,  which  on  cool- 
ing are  ground  with  another  percentage  of  coffee.  The 
compound  yields  a  pleasant  and  agreeable  beverage  and 
may  find  some  use  as  a  harmless  if  not  really  nutritious 
ingredient  in  the  lower  priced  coffee  preparations. 

In  Brazil  and  other  South  American  countries  the  fruit 
of  the  Wax  palm  is  used  extensively  as  a  substitute  for 


212  SUBSTITUTES   AND   ADULTERANTS. 

coffee,  being  very  rich  in  caffeine  and  possessing  nutri- 
tious properties,  while  recently  a  substitute  for  coffee  has 
been  introduced  to  England  and  the  continent  of  Europe 
under  the  name  of  "  Mochara,"  which  is  simply  a  prep- 
aration made  from  ripe  figs,  roasted  and  pulverized,  which 
is  sold  at  about  half  the  price  of  coffee.  Another  illus- 
tration of  the  modern  craze  for  replacing  every  genuine 
article  by  an  inferior  substitute  is  to  be  found  in  the 
announcement  of  a  company  to  work  a  recent  patent  for 
making  coffee  out  of  dates.  In  New  Zealand  the  berries 
of  the  Coprosma  have  been  proposed  as  a  coffee  substi- 
tute, while  the  seeds  of  the  Cassia  have  been  lately  im- 
ported into  England  from  the  river  Gambia  and  sold 
there  under  the  name  of  "  Negro  Coffee."  But  although 
such  substitutes  and  admixture  are  demanded,  yet  it 
appears  to  be  impossible  to  replace  coffee  altogether, 
all  the  elaborate  attempts  made  by  the  French  chemists 
during  the  wars  in  the  early  part  of  this  century  being 
unsuccessful  in  providing  any  approximate  substitute  for 
coffee. 

Kola-nut  Coffee, — The  diminishing  production  of 
coffee  in  Java,  Ceylon,  and  other  countries  of  East 
Indies  has  given  rise  to  the  suggestion  that  the  culti- 
vation of  the  Kola-nut  as  as  substitute  for  coffee  should 
be  undertaken,  which  not  only  as  a  stimulant,  but  as  an 
article  of  food,  possesses  the  essential  properties  of  coffee, 
and  is  even  said  to  be  richer  in  the  active  principle, 
caffeine.  Heretofore  this  product  has  been  raised  chiefly 
for  medicinal  purposes  only,  but  its  acceptability  as  a 
stimulating  and  nutritious  beverage  is  rapidly  growing, 
possessing  as  it  does  a  high  value,  because  of  its  power 
of  enabling  men  to  sustain  great  effort  as  well  as  to 
endure  long  fasting.  It  is  fast  finding  a  place  in  com- 
merce in  the   same  order  as  that  held  by  coffee,  the 


SUBSTITUTES   AND   ADULTERANTS.  213 

beverage  being  called  at  the  present  "  Kola-nut  Coffee," 
but  the  term  "  Kolatina,"  has  recently  been  proposed  as 
more  appropriate  for  the  decoction,  and  to  which  there 
can  be  no  reasonable  objection.  The  beverage  prepared 
from  the  Kola  nut  resembles  that  made  from  coffee,  and 
is  both  pleasant  and  agreeable,  and  for  persons  troubled 
with  weak  indigestion  "  Kolatina  "  is  found  to  be  better 
adapted  than  either  tea  or  cocoa.  This  is  the  bean 
which  Stanley  speaks  in  several  of  his  works  on  African 
exploration  as  possessing  much  greater  sustaining  power 
than  either  tea,  coffee,  or  cocoa ;  the  natives,  he  states, 
carry  these  beans  in  their  pockets  and  eat  them  during 
long  marches.  The  beans  are  first  ground  and  put  up  in 
packages,  with  directions  for  making  the  infusion,  one 
teaspoonful  being  sufficient  for  a  cup  of  Kolatina.  A 
concentrated  essence  is  also  made  from  the  beans,  and  an 
acerated  drink  called  "  Kola  champagne,"  very  agreeable 
to  the  taste  and  recommended  by  physicians. 

Chicory — The  common  root  of  the  Endive  or  "  Suc- 
cory "  plant,  as  used  along  with  coffee  was  originally  a 
Dutch  practice  dating  back  to  over  a  century  ago,  but 
for  many  years  after  the  nature  of  Chicoried  coffee  was 
kept  a  profound  secret  by  the  Dutch  dealers  until  1801, 
when  the  secret  was  first  disclosed.  The  fact  that  for 
over  a  hundred  years  it  has  been  successfully  used  as  a 
substitute  for  and  recognized  addition  to  coffee,  while  in 
the  meantime  innumerable  other  substances  has  been 
tried  for  the  same  purpose  and  abandoned  indicates  that 
it  must  be  agreeable,  if  not  beneficial,  to  many  constitu- 
tions besides  imparting  to  coffee  additional  color,  body 
and  pungency,  and  may,  by  acting  as  a  sedative,  tonic 
and  diuretic,  modify  its  stimulating  and  exciting  effects, 
and  is  at  least  in  very  general,  almost  universal,  use  at  the 


214  SUBSTITUTES   AND   ADULTERANTS. 

present  time.  It  is  extensively  cultivated  In  Belgium, 
Holland,  France,  Germany  and  other  European  countries, 
being  principally  prepared  from  the  old,  stout  and  white 
roots  of  the  plant,  which  after  washing  are  sliced  into 
small  pieces,  and  kiln-dried,  in  which  condition  it  is 
usually  sold  to  the  chicory  roasters,  by  whom  it  is 
parched  or  burned,  until  it  assumes  a  deep-brown  color, 
after  which  it  is  ground,  the  fine  dust  being  separated 
from  the  coarse  and  granulated  parts.  In  its  external 
characteristics  it  closely  resembles  ground  coffee,  but  is 
entirely  destitute  of  its  pleasing  and  aromatic  odor, 
neither  does  it  possess  any  trace  of  the  alkaloid — caffe- 
ine— which  give  their  peculiar  virtues  to  coffee,  tea  and 
other  diet  drinks.  It  occupies  a  peculiar  position,  how- 
ever, since  very  many  coffee  consumers  deliberately 
prefer  an  admixture  of  chicory  with  coffee  to  the  pure 
article  alone,  notwithstanding  that  it  is  entirely  devoid  of 
the  essential  oil  for  which  coffee  is  so  valued.  Differing 
diametrically  in  their  botanical  nature  and  chemical 
composition  as  well  as  in  their  physiological  properties 
and  action.  Again,  coffee  is  the  fruit  of  a  tree,  while 
chicory  is  the  root  of  a  herbaceous  plant,  and  it  is  a 
well-established  fact  that  of  all  parts  of  either  vegetables 
or  plants  the  fruit  and  seeds  possess  the  most  active  and 
nutritious  properties.  This  is  no  doubt  due  to  their  being 
freely  exposed  to  the  influence  of  light  and  air — agencies 
which  invariably  promote  chemical  changes  in  the  plant 
itself  and  so  effect  the  elaboration  of  those  complex 
organic  substances  on  which  the  activity  of  all  plants 
depends.  While  on  the  other  hand  it  is  manifest  that,  as 
roots  are  concealed  from  these  powerful  agencies,  they 
cannot  be  richly  endowed  with  active  properties,  there 
being  but  few  roots  containing  either  alkaloid  or  volatile 
oil — the  properties  which  give  to  coffee  its  unique  virtues. 


SUBSTITUTES   AND   ADULTERANTS.  215 

The  destinction  therefore  between  the  properties  of  the 
seeds  and  roots  of  plants  in  general  is  very  important, 
and  especially  so  in  the  case  of  coffee  and  chicory,  the 
infusion  of  the  latter  being  heavy,  black,  mawkish  and 
entirely  destitute  of  aroma;  that  of  the  former  being 
light,  rich,  fragrant  and  refreshing.  Coffee  containing 
three  active  principles :  caffeine,  volatile  oil  and 
tannin,  chicory  possessing  no  such  analogous  constitu- 
ents. Coffee  exerting  very  marked  and  highly  important 
pysiological  effects  of  a  beneficial  character  in  the  human 
system,  while  there  is  not  a  single  proof  that  chicory 
exerts  any  one  of  these  effects,  it  being  very  questionable, 
in  the  contrary,  whether  the  properties  it  does  possess  are 
not  really  injurious.  None  of  these  or  analogous  princi- 
ples are  to  be  found  in  any  of  the  substitutes  or  adulter- 
ants of  coffee,  so  that  the  latter  cannot  possess  a  single 
one  of  the  peculiar  and  beneficial  properties  of  coffee,  being 
simply  a  deception  on  the  stomach  of  the  consumer. 

Chicory  contains  neither  caffeine  nor  essential  oil  like 
coffee,  and  is  neither  exhilarating  nor  pleasant  in  taste, 
while  on  some  persons  it  acts  as  an  irritant  and  purgative. 
Some  so-called  coffees  contain  large  quantities  of  it,  even 
to  the  extent  of  95  per  cent,  which  it  would  be  more 
correct  to  call  such  a  mixture  "  adulterated  chicory," 
rather  than  coffee,  which  term  it  seems  entitled  to  only 
as  a  matter  of  courtesy,  chicory  being  in  its  turn 
also  subject  to  adulteration  in  many  forms,  two  very 
common  adulterants  being  beet-root  and  mangel-wurzel. 
As  to  the  nutrition  possessed  by  chicory,  it  contains 
only  about  one-half  the  nitrogenous  substances  of  coffee 
and  even  that  quantity  in  no  way  benefits  the  consumer, 
as  these  substances  are  insoluble  in  water  and  are  wasted 
in  the  infusion.  It  has  been  proved  also  that  even  the 
chicory  itself  is  extensively  adulterated,  as  all  of  the 


2l6  SUBSTITUTES   AND    ADULTERANTS. 

substances  found  in  adulterated  coffee  have  also  been  dis- 
covered in  ground  chicory.  Viewed  under  a  magnifying 
glass  the  component  fibres  and  elementary  structures  of 
the  different  substances  used  in  the  adulteration  of  coffee 
present  peculiarities  and  characteristics  that  enables  the 
experienced  observer  to  identify  without  difficulty  the  par- 
ticular substitute  or  adulterant  employed.  The  principal 
adulterant,  chicory,  being  readily  distinguished  by  the 
size,  form,  and  ready  separation  of  the  component  cells  of 
the  nut,  as  well  as  by  the  presence  of  an  abundance  of 
spiral  vessels  of  a  dotted  form.  Whole  roasted  beans, 
peas  and  cereals  may  be  best  detected  by  the  respective 
size,  form,  texture  and  other  characteristics  of  the 
starchy  granule,  of  which  such  substances  are  chiefly 
composed. 

In  minute  structure  true  coffee  is  so  distinct  from  all 
other  vegetable  substances  that  it  is  readily  recognizable  by 
means  of  the  microscope,  and  as  the  roasting  process 
does  not  destroy  its  distinguishing  peculiarities,  micro- 
scopic examination  forms  the  readiest  method  of  deter- 
mining the  genuineness  of  any  suspected  sample.  The 
true  coffee  bean  consists  of  an  assemblage  of  vesicles  or 
cells,  angular  in  form,  which  adhere  so  firmly  together 
that  they  break  up  into  pieces  rather  than  separate  into 
distinct  and  perfect  cells.  And,  again,  by  microscopical, 
physical  and  chemical  tests  the  purity  of  coffee  can  be 
still  further  determined  with  perfect  certainty.  The  mix- 
ture of  chicory  with  coffee  is  best  detected  by  the  aid  of 
the  microscope,  the  structure  of  both  which  they  retain 
after  torrefaction  being  very  characteristic  and  distinct. 
The  granules  of  coffee  remain  hard  and  angular  when 
steeped  in  water,  to  which  they  communicate  but  little 
color,  while  chicory  on  the  other  hand  by  swelling  up 
and  softening  imparts  a  d^ep  brown  color  to  the  water, 


SUBSTITUTES    AND    ADULTERANTS.  21 7 

the  specific  gravity  of  chicory  being  also  much  lighter 
than  that  of  coffee. 

All  of  the  pseudo  patent  or  proprietory  ground  coffees, 
put  up  in  bulk  or  packages,  and  recommended  to  the 
consumer  by  high-sounding,  seductive  names  and  attrac- 
tive labels,  which  are  annually  palmed  off  in  such  vast 
quantities,  consist  of  nothing  more  than  a  combination 
of  these  adulterants  with  genuine  coffee.  So  much  so 
that  it  may  be  safely  said  that  wherever  grinding  is  done 
it  may  be  safely  set  down  that  more  or  less  adulteration 
is  practised,  the  ground  coffee  being  put  up  in  packages 
or  in  bulk  form.  The  average  basis  for  the  compound 
being  composed  of  the  following  proportions  to  every 
1,000  pounds:  chicory,  lOO;  rye,  200;  peas,  400;  coffee, 
200,  and  other  substances  100  pounds. 

According  to  some  English  chemists,  coffee  is  adul- 
terated in  that  country,  outside  of  chicory,  with  such 
substances  as  roasted  peas,  beans,  carrots,  turnips,  pars- 
nips, potatoes,  acorns,  beets,  lupins  and  even  fragments 
of  the  baked  livers  of  oxen  and  horses.  To  such  an 
extent  is  the  practice  carried  there,  that  it  is  next  to  im- 
possible to  procure  a  pound  of  pure  coffee  there  at  almost 
any  price.  The  evil  also  flourishes  to  a  great  extent  in 
this  country,  but  with  the  exception  that  nothing  worse 
than  roasted  rye,  peas,  beans  and  cereal  grains  are  chiefly 
used  for  its  adulteration.  With  regard  to  the  propriety  of 
selling  chicory  with  coffee,  it  may  be  stated  that  while  it 
certainly  is  not  right  to  sell  a  mixture  of  coffee  with  chicory 
under  the  name  of  pure  coffee,  and  unreasonable  to  compel 
the  manufacturer  or  vender  to  specify  approximately 
the  proportion  of  chicory  contained  in  the  mixture, 
this  latter  is  especially  desirable,  inasmuch  as  chicory 
is  far  cheaper  than  coffee,  and  it  is,  therefore,  necessary 
to  protect  the  public  against  having  chicory  palmed  off 


2l8  SUBSTITUTES   AND    ADULTERANTS. 

on  it  for  pure  coffee.  According  to  the  best  authorities, 
coffee,  when  pure,  is  a  most  valuable  ingredient  of  our 
food,  owing  to  its  agreeable  flavor,  pleasing  odor  and 
refreshing  and  gently  stimulating  properties,  which,  if 
not  absolutely  necessary,  is  at  least  a  most  desirable 
constituent  of  our  daily  dietary,  and  any  one  that 
deprives  it  of  its  true  qualities  by  adulteration  or  substi- 
tution inflicts  an  injury  more  or  less  grave  on  the  pubHc 
health,  because  the  adulterants  are  claimed  not  to  be 
poisonous — that  is,  directly — but  only  indirectly  inju- 
rious. The  offense  is  thought  little  of,  and  never  pun- 
ished in  this  country,  with  the  result  that  the  nefarious 
practice  is  rather  encouraged  than  repressed.  So  that, 
in  considering  the  many  evils  of  coffee  adulteration, 
we  must  not  overlook  the  fact  that  coffee  is  not 
only  a  beverage,  but  also  a  drug,  antagonistic  in 
action  to  the  alkaloid  morphia^  as  well  as  to  other 
alkaloids  of  like  nature,  so  that  in  cases  of  poison- 
ing its  adulteration  may  lead  to  the  failure  of  med- 
ical treatment,  even  to  the  extent  of  the  loss  of  life. 

The  operation  of  roasting  also  tends  to  make  coffee 
soluble  in  boiling  water,  as  when  Raw  coffee  is  perfectly 
exhausted  by  means  of  boiling  water  it  yields  up  25  per 
cent,  which  passes  into  solution,  while  Roasted  coffee,  on 
the  other  hand,  when  completely  exhausted  by  means  of 
boiling  water,  yields  up  39  per  cent,  of  soluble  matter. 
These  figures  appear  rather  high,  as  in  actually  using 
coffee  as  a  beverage  we  are  not  in  the  habit  of  making 
anything  like  a  complete  extraction,  only  some  10  to  12 
per  cent,  of  the  coffee  passing  into  the  liquid.  From  these 
the  facts  it  will  be  perceived  that  the  chemical  character  of 
coffee  provide  fairly  satisfactory  criteria  for  the  recognition 
of  many  species  of  adulteration,  the  absence  of  starch  alone 
in  genuine  coffee  offering  in  itself  a  character  which  enables 


SUBSTITUTES   AND   ADULTERANTS.  2I9 

the  analyst  to  at  once  deal  with  the  whole  class  of  pos- 
sible adulterants,  including  many  species  of  grain,  while 
the  absence  of  more  than  traces  of  sugar  in  Roasted 
coffee  can  likewise  be  turned  to  excellent  account  inas- 
much as  Chicory  contains  no  starch,  but  is  highly  sac- 
charine even  after  roasting,  the  percentage  of  sugar  in 
Roasted  coffee  ranging  from  o.  o.  to  i.  i,  while  in  Roasted 
chicory  the  quantity  of  sugar  ranges  from  12  to  18  per 
cent.  The  proof  of  this  character  is  best  made  by  the 
aid  of  the  copper-reduction  test,  for  which  purpose  a 
standard  solution  of  copper  is  required,  which  may  be 
prepared  by  dissolving  34.65  grams  of  crystalized  sul- 
phate of  copper  in  200  C.  C.  of  water  and  adding  to  it 
173  grams  of  double  tartrate  of  potash  and  soda,  with 
400  C.  C.  of  a  solution  of  caustic  soda,  the  whole  being 
subsequently  diluted  with  water  so  as  to  occupy  a  litre. 
The  standard  solution  of  copper  made  in  this  manner  is 
of  such  a  strength  that  10  C.  C.  are  reduced  by  .050 
grams  of  grape  sugar,  the  best  method  of  using  this 
solution  being  to  take  a  known  volume  of  it,  say  10  C. 
C.  accurately  measured  out,  and  dilute  it  with  three  or 
four  times  its  volumeof  boiling  water  and  then  dropping 
into  the  boiling  copper  solution,  w^hich  is  to  be  added, 
until  the  point  is  just  reached  when  the  copper  solution 
is  exhausted,  and  as  the  reduction  of  the  copper-salt  to 
the  state  of  red  sub-oxide  of  copper  progresses,  the 
precipitate  will  accumulate,  and  at  the  same  time  the  blue 
color  will  fade  from  the  solution.  The  last  delicate  read- 
ing is  finally  effected  by  half  of  the  reduction  between 
the  ferro-cyanide  of  potassium  and  copper  solutions,  for 
which  purpose  a  little  of  the  liquid  is  filtered,  acidified 
shghtly  with  acetic  acid  and  tested  with  a  drop  of  the 
solution  of  the  ferro-cyanide  of  potassium.  In  this  tri- 
turate, as  in  all  like  cases,  a  rough  and  rapid  estimation 


220  SUBSTITUTES   AND    ADULTERANTS. 

is  first  made,  and  then  a  second  operation  when  the 
quantity  is  approximately  known  to  make  a  delicate  and 
careful  reading  of  the  exact  point.  Thus  if  lOO  parts  of 
coffee  when  infused  yield  sensibly  more  than  i  per  cent, 
of  sugar,  then  the  presence  of  chicory  or  other  adulter- 
ant maybe  strongly  suspected  and  a  rough  calculation  of 
the  quantity  made.  The  fact  that  coffee  extract  is  devoid 
or  almost  devoid  of  sugar,  while  many  of  the  other 
natural  products  yield  saccharine  extracts,  makes  itself 
manifest  in  many  ways,  and  the  specific  gravity  also  of 
equal  quantities  of  an  infusion  of  coffee  being  very  much 
lower  than  the  specific  gravity  of  an  infusion  of  chicory 
and  the  other  principal  substances  used  in  the  adultera- 
tion of  ground  coffee.  Chicory  also  possessing  greater 
coloring  power  than  coffee,  for  which  reason  this  charac- 
ter may  be  rendered  available  in  the  testing  of  coffee,  as 
not  only  does  chicory  color  water  more  deeply  than 
coffee,  but  it  colors  it  with  greater  rapidity,  the  oil  con- 
tained in  the  coffee  hindering  the  solution  of  the  coloring 
matter  by  the  water,  whereas  chicory,  which  contains  no 
oil,  imparts  its  coloring  matter  to  water  with  great  readi- 
ness. All  of  which  tends  to  render  the  color-test,  when 
properly  applied,  the  easiest  and  most  available  for  the 
detection  of  chicory  or  other  substances  in  coffee. 

What  is  known  as  the  "  Ash  test,"  is  as  follows :  Pure 
coffee  when  incinerated  or  burned,  yields  about  4  per 
cent,  of  ash  on  an  average,  while  the  ash  of  chicory  and 
other  adulterants  used  in  coffee  amounts  to  between  5 
and  6  per  cent,  of  the  residue,  the  ratio  of  soluble  to 
insoluble  ash  being  inverted  when  dissolved  in  water 
thus : — 

Ash  of  Coffee.  Ash  of  Chicory. 

Soluble,    .    .    .    .    3.24  Soluble,    ....     1.74 

Insoluble,      .    .    .    0.76  Insoluble,      .    ,    .    3.52 


SUBSTITUTES   AND   ADULTERANTS.  221 

From  this  analysis  it  will  be  observed  that  the  average 
ash  of  coffee  when  incinerated  is  about  4  per  cent.,  3.24 
of  which  is  soluble  in  water,  and  0.76  insoluble,  more 
than  half  ot  the  entire  ash  consisting  of  potash  in  com- 
bination with  carbonic  and  phosphoric  acids.  Magnesia 
amounting  to  about  8  and  lime  to  about  4  per  cent,  of 
the  whole,  while  it  is  claimed  that  soda  and  silica  are 
entirely  absent  from  coffee  ash,  great  stress  being  laid  on 
this  circumstance.  The  ash  of  chicory,  on  the  other 
hand,  which  is  the  main  adulterant  of  coffee,  amounts  to 
5.06  when  incinerated,  1.74  per  cent,  of  which  only  is 
soluble  in  water,  and  3.32  insoluble,  being  almost  an 
inversion  of  figures  and  from  which  it  may  be  easily 
understood  why  the  examination  of  the  ash  alone  would 
suffice  to  distinguish  between  coffee  and  chicory,  and 
from  which  it  may  readily  be  determined,  an  examina- 
tion of  the  ash  test  alone  sufficing  to  distinguish  pure 
coffee  from  the  adulterated  compounds. 

Another  unerring  test,  known  as  the  "  Color  test,"  is  to 
prepare  a  saturated  solution  of  common  salt  and  mix  a 
small  quantity  of  the  coffee  to  be  tested  with  ten  times  its 
weight  of  the  solution  in  a  test-tube  at  least  three  quarters 
of  an  inch  in  diameter,  shaking  it  repeatedly  so  that  the 
coffee  may  be  thoroughly  wetted,  and  then  allow  the  tube 
to  stand  for  half  an  hour.  Next,  closely  observe  the  color 
of  the  liquid  and  the  quantity  of  coffee  floating  on  the  sur- 
face as  well  as  the  amount  deposited  in  the  tube.  If  the  color 
be  a  very  pale  amber  and  almost  all  of  the  coffee  floats 
on  top,  the  sample  may  be  assumed  to  be  pure,  but  if  of 
a  decidedly  dark-yellow  or  brownish  hue,  it  clearly  indi- 
cates the  admixture  of  chicory  or  some  similar  adulter- 
ant, in  which  case  there  is  also  a  larger  deposit  for  the 
reasons  already  stated.  This  deposit  increases  and  the 
color  of  the  brine  grows  darker  in  proportion  to  the 


222  SUBSTITUTES  AND  ADULTERANTS. 

extent  of  the  impurity  in  the  coffee,  as  with  the  addition 
of  only  30  per  cent,  of  chicory  the  brown  color  is  very 
marked,  so  that  with  a  still  larger  percentage  of  the 
adulterant  it  becomes  correspondingly  darker. 


OHr^^i^ODEM^  \riir. 


BY  the  combination  of  different  varieties  of  coffee 
much  better  results  are  sometimes  obtainable 
than  when  one  variety  is  used  alone,  but  in  the 
mixing  or  blending  of  two  or  more  kinds  together, 
several  points  have  to  be  studied,  such  as  the  age,  grade, 
body,  flavor,  appearance,  and  affinity  of  the  coffees  to  be 
combined.  The  public  taste  for  certain  flavored  coffees, 
like  that  of  tea,  being  an  acquired  one,  it  behooves  the 
dealer  to  first  study  and  learn  the  taste  of  his  customers 
before  catering  to  it. 

The  successful  blending  of  coffees  may  be  easily 
accomplished  if  only  a  fair  knowledge  of  the  merits  and 
general  character  of  the  coffees  be  possessed  by  the 
dealer  ;  but  tastes  differ  so  widely  that  it  is  next  to  im- 
possible to  give  any  fixed  formulas  for  any  specific  com- 
binations. For  this  reason  the  following  blends  are  only 
given  for  the  purpose  of  conveyinf^  some  idea  as  to  what 
coffees  assimilate  best  in  combination  and  also  ascertain 
what  body,  strength  and  flavor  is  required  by  the  cus- 
tomer or  customers  before  preparing  the  combination; 
but  a  taste  for  any  fairly  good  blend  of  coffees  may  be 
cultivated  in  the  customer  with  time.  And  as  no 
definite  formulas  can  be  given  for  combining  two  or 
more  varieties  of  coffee,  the  dealer  must  study  the  taste 
and  requirements  of  his  trade,  noting  its  peculiarities  and 


224  BLENDING   AND   PREPARING. 

experimenting  with  it  until  he  has  discovered  a  com- 
bination that  will  suit  or  please  a  majority  of  his  cus- 
tomers which,  having  once  found,  he  should  adhere  to 
strictly,  by  being  always  careful  to  select,  as  nearly  as 
possible,  the  same  grades  of  coffee,  and  keeping  them  up 
to  the  same  high  and  uniform  standard. 

Though  not  generally  admitted,  the  testing  of  coffee 
is  much  more  difficult  and  requires  more  experience 
than  that  of  tea,  inasmuch  as  the  sample  of  tea  is  all 
ready  to  have  the  water  applied  to  it,  while  the  sample 
of  coffee  is  presented  in  the  raw  or  natural  state  and 
must  not  only  be  roasted  properly  and  ground  before 
being  tested,  but  must  also  be  roasted  as  precisely  as  the 
other  samples  with  which  it  is  to  be  compared,  in  order 
to  determine  its  exact  value.  To  smell  or  taste  cor- 
rectly requires  a  knowledge  of  all  the  properties  and 
characteristics  of  the  article  under  consideration,  as 
these  senses  convey  to  the  mind  their  impressions,  so 
that  if  the  mind  can  analyze  the  cause  and  effect,  the 
senses  of  smell  and  taste  act  in  consonance  with  the  sense 
of  reason.  It  is  thus  obvious  that  to  be  an  expert 
judge  of  either  tea  or  coffee  requires  a  thorough  knowl- 
edge of  the  different  varieties  and  grades  of  both,  and 
what  the  most  desirable  qualities  of  each  are.  It  is 
also  further  necessary  that  the  dealer  should  be  well 
aware  of  what  characteristics  and  blending  of  flavors 
his  customers  prefer.  Having  carefully  selected,  tested, 
and  purchased  his  coffee,  the  next  important  thing 
is  to  so  roast  or  have  it  roasted  as  to  best  develop  the 
drinking  qualities,  which,  as  stated  before,  is  a  more 
important  and  essential  process  than  the  hulling  and 
curing  of  it,  though  frequently  underestimated  by  the 
average  dealer,  as  many  otherwise  good  coffees  are  injured 
irreparably  by  improper  roasting. 


ROASTED   COFFEE    BLENDS.  225 

Owing  to  the  wide  difference  in  the  age,  weight  and 
texture  of  coffees  they  should  never  be  blended  in  the 
raw  or  natural  state,  as  old  and  dry  coffees  require  a 
shorter  time  to  roast  than  new  and  moist  ones,  the  same 
rule  applying  to  what  are  known  in  trade  as  "  mild"  and 
"  strong"  coffees,  as  one  will  be  but  half  roasted  or 
roasted  only  when  the  former  is  roasted  or  burned,  thus 
imparting  to  the  combination  a  raw,  uncooked  or  burned 
flavor,  as  the  case  may  be.  The  best  way  is  to  roast  or 
have  roasted  the  coffee  intended  for  the  blend  in  different 
cylinders,  then  mix  and  cover  them  up  tightly  immedi- 
ately after  roasting,  in  order  that  the  differing  characters 
and  flavors  may  exchange  and  assimilate  freely  while  the 
pores  are  still  open  to  receive  them. 

No.  1. — (Low-priced).  May  be  made  from  a  fair  Rio 
and  Santos,  low-grade  Maracaibo  or  other  mild  sort,  in 
the  proportions  of  half  and  half,  or,  when  three  or  more 
varieties  are  used,  in  equal  quantities. 

No.  2. — (Medium).  Is  composed  of  equal  quantities 
of  a  large  white-bean  Santos  and  Cucuta  Maracaibo  or 
other  standard  mild  growth,  the  whole  being  strength- 
ened by  the  addition  of  one  part  choice  Rio,  if  con- 
sidered too  weak  in  body. 

No.  3. — (Choice).  When  a  really  rich,  smooth, 
mellow  beverage  is  desired  a  combination,  composed  of 
one-third  Arabian  Mocha  and  two-thirds  Preanger  Java 
will  yield  the  desired  results.  While  a  liquor  equally 
as  good,  if  not  more  popular,  may  be  obtained  from 
equal  parts  of  Cucuta  or  Merida,  Maracaibo,  Aden, 
Mocha  and  Preanger  Java,  particularly  when  fresh  roasted. 


226  GROUND    COFFEE   BLENDS. 

For  a  good  coffee  the  most  common  practice  is  to  blend 
a  Padang  Java  and  a  Cucuta  Maracaibo,  or  large, 
yellow,  old-bean  Santos  in  the  proportions  of  40  pounds 
of  the  former  to  60  of  either,  or  both  the  two  latter, 
the  combination  answering  well  for  a  straight  coffee,  and 
for  which  it  may  be  safely  sold.  In  fact,  one  of  the  most 
popular  so-called  finest  Javas  in  the  market  to-day  is 
composed  of  these  three  varieties,  the  addition  of  the 
Santos  improving  the  combination,  as  it  lends  to  it  the 
essential  quality  which  is  lacking. 

oi«oi:rivr>  ooi^i^ede^  :BrvE5:ivr>«. 

In  ground  coffees  the  appended  specimen  blends  are 
given  to  illustrate  how  they  are  mixed,  rather  than  as 
laying  down  any  fixed  formulas,  and  are  recommended 
as  being  at  least  non-injurious,  if  not  positively  whole- 
some. 

No.  1. — Composed  of  20  pounds  roasted  rye,  20  pounds 
chicory  and  20  pounds  ground  coffee  makes  a  fairly  drink- 
able compound,  when  a  cheap  coffee  is  required. 

No.  2. — A  good  medium  grade  may  be  prepared  of  10 
pounds  rye,  20  pounds  chicory  and  20  pounds  coffee. 
These  proportions  may  be  altered  at  pleasure,  but  care 
must  be  taken  to  at  all  times  have  the  rye  in  excess  of 
the  chicory  and  to  thoroughly  mix  and  grind  the  com- 
ponent parts  together.  The  dry  dust  of  the  rye  quickly 
absorbs  the  moisture  of  the  chicory  and  will  also  prevent 
the  mill  from  becoming  clogged  in  grinding. 

No.  3. — Better  still  in  the  proportions  of  15  pounds 
rye,  10  pounds  chicory  and  10  pounds  good,  mild  coffee, 
the  component  parts  of  which  may  be  still  further  varied 
to  suit  the  price  and  taste  of  the  customer  and  to  which 
may  be  added  any  of  the  other  ingredients  with  which 


PREPARING   FOR  USE.  227 

coffees  are  mixed,  except  corn  or  beans,  but  it  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  only  the  best  grade  of  coffee  must  be 
used  in  the  blend,  as  what  may  otherwise  be  a  good  com- 
bination may  be  utterly  spoiled  by  the  introduction  of  a 
tainted,  stained,  damaged  or  hidey  coffee. 

But  the  best  and  safest  of  all  substances  for  mixing  or 
blending  with  coffee  with  the  object  of  reducing  its  cost 
is  chicory  and  rye,  containing  as  they  do  a  large  percent- 
age of  saccharine,  which  in  the  process  of  roasting  becomes 
carameled,  thus  imparting  to  the  compound  the  flavor  of 
coffee  to  a  much  greater  extent  than  any  other  substitute 
known  and  for  which  reason  it  lends  itself  to  the  purpose 
more  readily  than  any  other  vegetable  substance.  Again, 
it  is  not  injurious  to  health,  while  at  the  same  time  it 
gives  up  its  extractive  matter  easily,  thus  improving  the 
extract  yielded  by  poor  coffee  and  imparting  a  dark  color 
to  the  decoction  such  as  can  only  be  produced  by  three 
times  the  weight  of  pure  coffee.  It  has  one  great  defect, 
however,  that  of  easily  absorbing  moisture,  becoming 
hard  and  lumpy  on  exposure  to  the  atmosphere,  more 
particularly  when  ground  fine. 

The  methods  of  preparing  for  the  table  are  almost  as 
numerous  as  the  countries  in  which  it  is  grown,  and  as 
much  of  the  beneficial  influence  which  it  undoubtedly 
exerts  depends  in  a  great  measure  on  its  proper  prepara- 
tion. This  question  has  given  rise  to  such  a  maze  of 
psuedo  chemical  subtleties  and  mechanical  devices  that  it 
is  difficult  to  arrive  at  any  fundamental  common-sense 
rule  for  its  most  perfect  production  in  the  cup.  The  two 
principal  objects  to  be  sought  for  in  the  proper  prepara- 
tion of  coffee  as  a  beverage  are :  ( i )  To  obtain  the  greatest 
amount  of  strength  and  aroma,  without  extracting  any 


228  PREPARING   FOR   USE. 

of  its  astringent  properties,  and  (2)  to  produce  a  rich, 
transparent,  nut-brown  liquor,  free  from  all  cloudiness  and 
grounds.  The  first  requisite  in  securing  these  results  is 
that  the  article  be  purchased  pure  2ind  fresh  roasted  in  the 
bean  and  ground  personally  a  short  time  previous  to  pre- 
paring for  the  table,  for  if  roasted  too  long  prior  to  its 
use  the  beans  lose  much  of  their  strength  and  aroma, 
becoming  tough  and  difficult  to  grind.  This  latter  defect, 
however,  may  be  remedied  in  part  by  reheating  in  a  pan 
or  oven  for  some  minutes  previous  to  being  ground  and 
infused. 

The  usual  methods  of  preparing  coffee  for  use  as  a 
beverage  are:  (i)  By  Infusion  or  drawing;  (2)  By 
Decoction  or  boiling,  and  (3)  By  Filtration  or  distillation. 

Infusion — or  "drawing" — is  accomplished  by  first 
making  the  water  boil  and  then  putting  in  the  ground 
coffee,  the  vessel  being  immediately  removed  off  the  fire 
and  allowed  to  stand  quietly,  in  the  same  manner  as  tea, 
on  the  stove  or  range  for  about  ten  minutes,  in  order  to 
more  fully  extract  its  properties.  The  coffee  is  ready  for 
use  by  this  method  when  the  powder  swimming  on  the 
surface  sinks  to  the  bottom  on  slightly  stirring  it.  This 
process  yields  a  very  aromatic  beverage,  but  one  contain- 
ing very  little  of  the  extract  or  stimulating  properties. 

Decoction — or  "  boiling  " — is  the  custom  in  the  East, 
and  generally  yields  an  excellent  coffee.  The  ground 
coffee  is  put  in  the  vessel  with  cold  water  and  placed  on 
the  fire,  where  it  is  allowed  to  boil  for  a  few  seconds, 
care  being  taken  not  to  allow  it  to  overboil.  If  boiled 
too  long  by  this  method  the  aromatic  properties  are 
volatilized,  and  while  the  coffee  will  be  rich  in  extract  it 
will  be  poor  in  aroma.         , 


PREPARING   FOR   USE.  229 

Filtration — or  ''  distilling". — By  this  process  the  cof- 
fee is  prepared  in  a  "  percolator,"  in  which  the  ground 
coffee  is  compressed  between  two  metallic  diaphragms, 
so  arranged  as  to  permit  the  water  to  filter  through  it 
slowly.  This  method  often,  but  not  always,  yields  a  cup 
of  good  coffee,  as  when  the  pouring  of  the  boiling  water 
over  the  ground  coffee  is  done  slowly  the  drops  in  pass- 
ing come  in  contact  with  too  much  air,  the  oxygen  of 
which  makes  a  change  in  the  aromatic  particles,  often 
destroying  them  entirely.  The  extraction  also  is  incom- 
plete, for,  instead  of  20  per  cent,  the  water  by  this  pro- 
cess dissolves  only  from  10  to  15  per  cent.,  the  balance 
being  lost  by  evaporation,  while  by  the  other  methods 
more  than  half  the  valuable  parts  of  the  coffee  remain 
in  the  grounds  and  is  entirely  lost. 

It  is  contended  by  many  experts  and  connoisseurs  that 
to  obtain  the  full  aroma  of  coffee  without  extracting  its 
astringent  properties,  it  must  in  all  cases  be  prepared  as 
an  infusion  with  boiling  water,  that  is,  "  drawn  "  in  the 
same  manner  as  tea,  or  simply  allowed  to  reach  the  boil- 
ing point  after  infusion,  but  no  more.  While  others, 
among  whom  is  Baron  Liebig,  maintain  that  by  simple 
infusion  alone  much  of  the  valuable  soluble  principle  in 
the  coffee  remains  unextracted,  being  eventually  thrown 
out  with  the  grounds.  To  avoid  this  unnecessary  waste, 
it  is  suggested  that  the  grounds  of  the  coffee  once  used  by 
infusion  should  be  preserved,  boiled  and  the  liquor  result- 
ing therefrom  be  used  for  infusing  a  fresh  supply.  By 
this  method  it  is  claimed  that  the  substantial  properties 
of  the  previously  infused  coffee,  and  the  aroma  of  the 
new  are  obtained  together  in  the  fresh  infusion.  In  many 
French  households  the  coffee  grounds  are  utilized  by  dis- 
tillation for  economy's  sake,  hot  water  being  poured  over 
them,  which,  after  passing  through,  is  preserved  in  a  bottle 


230  PREPARING  FOR   USE. 


and  used  as  an  extract.  In  fact,  this  is  claimed  to  be  the 
method  adopted  in  making  the  finest  French  coffee. 

The  best  method  under  these  circumstances  is  a  com- 
bination of  the  second  and  third,  in  which  the  usual 
quantities  of  both  coffee  and  water  are  to  be  retained, 
a  tin  measure  containing  half  an  ounce  of  roasted 
coffee  beans  being  generally  sufficient  for  two  small 
cups  (or  one  large  breakfast  cup)  of  coffee  of  moderate 
strength,  or  four  ounces  for  eight  small  cups  or  four 
large  ones.  With  three-quarters  of  the  coffee  to  be  pre- 
pared after  being  ground,  the  water  is  made  to  boil  in 
ten  or  fifteen  minutes,  after  which  the  other  quarter  is 
put  in,  and  the  vessel  immediately  withdrawn  from  the 
fire,  tightly  covered  over  and  allowed  to  stand  for  five  or 
six  minutes.  In  order  that  the  powder  on  the  surface 
may  fall  to  the  bottom  more  readily,  it  is  meantime 
stirred  round,  and  after  the  deposit  takes  place  the  coffee 
may  be  poured  off,  being  then  ready  for  use.  But  in 
order  to  separate  the  grounds  more  completely,  the 
coffee  may  be  passed  through  a  clean  muslin  cloth,  but 
generally  this  operation  is  not  necessary,  being  frequently 
prejudical  to  the  pure  flavor  of  the  beverage.  By  this 
process  the  first  boiling  gives  the  strength,  the  second 
adding  to  the  flavor  without  extracting  its  astringent 
properties,  it  does  not,  however,  dissolve  more  than 
one-fourth  of  the  aromatic  substances  contained  in  the 
roasted  coffee.  The  beverage,  when  ready  for  use  by  this 
process,  ought  to  be  of  a  rich  brownish-black  color, 
semi-transparent,  somewhat  resembling  chocolate 
thinned  with  water. 

Coffee  may  be  prepared  in  any  kind  of  vessel,  tin  cup, 
iron  pot,  earthen  pitcher  or  regular  coffee-pot,  but  the 
utensil,  whatever  it  may  be,  must  be  thoroughly  clean 
before  using.     When  prepared  in  a  tin  cup  or  iron  pot 


PREPARING   FOR  USE.  23 1 

first  heat  the  ground  coffee  in  the  vessel  and  pour  on  boil- 
ing water  or  milk  when  the  coffee  is  sufficiently  heated, 
and  stir  with  a  spoon  for  one  minute,  then  allow  to  stand 
by  the  fire  where  it  will  keep  hot,  without  boiling,  for 
another  minute  and  stir  again  and  then  let  stand  to  settle 
for  two  minutes,  after  which  it  is  ready  for  use,  care  being 
taken  when  pouring  out  not  to  disturb  the  grounds. 
But,  if  a  pitcher  be  used  it,  must  be  first  heated  with  boil- 
ing water  and  allowed  to  stand  in  a  warm  place  to  infuse 
for  at  least  ten  minutes  before  serving. 

There  are  so  many  different  varieties  of  coffee  and  such 
a  wide  dissimilarity  of  tastes,  that  it  is  almost  next  to 
impossible  to  suggest  the  special  kind  of  coffee  to  select 
for  use,  even  for  the  average  consumer,  the  same  difficulty 
also  applying  to  what  constitutes  the  requisite  quantity. 
Many  old-time  coffee-drinkers  prefer  a  strong,  dark,  or, 
as  they  term  it,  "  an  old-fashioned  Rio."  Others  Hke  a 
good  Maracaibo,  or  other  fine,  mild  grade,  such  as  Cey- 
lon, Jamaica  and  Guatemala ;  in  fact,  these  are  the  most 
popular  grades  and  the  choice  of  the  majority  of  con- 
sumers, not  only  on  account  of  their  intrinsic  merits, 
but  also  on  account  of  price.  For  an  exceedingly  fine 
coffee,  however,  the  best  results  are  obtained  from  a 
combination  of  true  Java  and  genuine  Mocha,  mixed  in 
the  proportions  of  two-thirds  of  the  former  to  one-third 
of  the  latter,  fresh  roasted,  fresh  ground  and  fresh  made  ; 
while,  with  regard  to  quantity,  one,  two  and  three  table- 
spoonfuls  to  each  pint  of  water  is  recommended,  accord- 
ing to  the  number  to  be  served  and  the  strength  required. 

The  degree  of  strength  is  altogether  a  matter  of  taste, 
two  ounces,  or  four  heaping  tablespoonfuls,  of  pure, 
ground  coffee,  made  with  absolutely  boiling  water,  will 
yield  a  full  quart  of  average  strength,  making  a  pleasant 
and  well-flavored  breakfast  coffee.     But  for  four  persons 


232  PREPARING   FOR   USE. 

a  tea-cup  of  finely-ground  coffee — the  finer,  the  better — 
will  be  required,  to  be  served  as  soon  as  made,  as  the 
infusion  rapidly  deteriorates  by  standing  too  long. 

In  Ethiopia  and  Southeastern  Africa,  where  its  virtues 
were  first  discovered  and  where  it  has  been  in  use  for 
centuries  prior  to  its  introduction  to  civilization,  it  is 
used  in  a  solid  form,  being  first  roasted,  crushed  and 
mixed  with  fat  or  grease,  rolled  into  balls  and  eaten. 
The  natives  claiming  that  one  of  these  balls  will  support 
them  for  an  entire  day,  and  preferring  it  so  prepared  to  a 
meal  of  bread  or  meat. 

•if.  :^  "i/L  if.  if.  T)f. 

While  the  Arabs,  to  whom  the  civilized  world  is 
indebted  not  only  for  the  first  knowledge  of  the  plant  and 
its  product,  but  also  for  the  first  knowledge  of  preparing 
it  in  liquid  form,  prepare  it  for  use  in  a  porous  earthen- 
ware pitcher  first  set  in  hot  ashes  until  all  moisture  is 
evaporated  and  the  vessel  is  well  heated,  after  which 
freshly  roasted  and  pounded  coffee  is  put  in  and  a  little 
salt  added,  both  being  heated  thoroughly.  Boiling 
water  is  then  poured  on,  the  vessel  covered  and  allowed 
to  rest  in  the  hot  ashes  until  it  settles  before  serving.  A 
decoction  known  as  Kishre  is  also  made  there  from  the 
dried  pulp  of  the  berries,  which  is  prepared  by  bruising 
or  pounding  the  raw  pulp  with  stones  and  putting  it  in 
boiling  water,  contained  in  an  earthen  pan  placed  over  a 
slow  fire.  Ground  cardamons  and  a  little  cinnamon  or 
ginger  is  next  added  to  the  decoction,  after  which  it  is 
allowed  to  simmer  for  half  an  hour  before  using. 

In  Turkey,  where  it  is  regarded  as  the  national  bever- 
age, it  is  prepared  by  first  grinding  the  roasted  beans 
exceedingly  fine,  almost  as  fine  as  flour,  and  put  in  a  pot 


PREPARING    FOR   USE.  233 

in  which  cold  water  is  poured  and  placed  on  the  fire  until 
it  heats  up  to  almost  the  boiling  point  and  thea  served 
without  the  addition  of  either  milk  or  sugar.  But  when 
only  a  single  cup  of  coffee  is  wanted,  the  requisite  quan- 
tity is  measured  into  a  small,  long-handled  brass  coffee 
pot,  made  expressly  to  hold  one  or  two  cups,  as  the 
case  may  be,  and  water  enough  poured  on  to  fill  the 
vessel,  which  is  set  on  live  coals  until  it  heats  up  fo,  but 
not  beyond,  the  boiling  point  and  then  served  in  a  tiny 
cup  without  straining  or  otherwise  settling  the  grounds. 

While  in  Egypt,  which  is  also  proverbial  for  the  excel- 
lence of  its  coffee,  it  is  prepared  by  first  grinding  the 
beans  fine,  as  in  Turkey,  and  adding  an  equal  quantity  of 
sugar  to  it,  pouring  on  boiling  water,  and  placing  the 
vessel  over  the  fire  until  it  is  thoroughly  boiled,  but 
removing  and  allowing  it  to  cool  occasionally  between 
times  until  it  becomes  black  and  rather  thick,  in  which 
state  it  is  served.  Coffee  thus  prepared  will  be  found 
very  rich  and  strong,  too  much  so  for  the  average  taste,  but 
dark,  frothy-tipped,  and,  taken  altogether,  a  delicious 
beverage. 

In  Java,  Sumatra  and  other  Eastern  coffee-growing 
countries  the  natives  make  a  beverage  from  the  leaves  of 
the  coffee  plant,  the  leaves  containing  a  large  percentage  of 
the  active  principle — caffeine.  They  first  roast  and  cure 
the  leaves  after  the  manner  of  tea,  and  prepare  them  by 
infusion  the  same  as  tea,  the  natives  preferring  the  liquor 
from  the  leaves  to  that  produced  from  the  roasted  beans. 

The  Dutch  settlers  in  South  Africa  not  only  use  coffee 
at  all  meals  but  at  all  times,  the  coffee-pot  being  always 
on  the  fire  ready  for  any  visitors  and  friends  who  may  call. 


234  PREPARING   FOR   USE. 

In  preparing  it  they  use  two  kettles,  boiling  the  water  in 
one  and  pouring  it  on  the  coffee  which  has  been  pre- 
viously placed  in  the  other ;  the  water  is  then  poured 
back  and  forth  several  times,  a  little  cold  water  being 
finally  added  to  settle  the  grounds  just  before  serving. 

In  Mexico  the  coffee  is  roasted,  ground  and  prepared 
at  the*same  time ;  the  beans  are  roasted  as  required  and 
pounded  fine  in  a  bag  or  coarse  cloth,  and  immediately 
transferred  to  the  pot,  boiling  water  is  then  poured  on 
and  milk  added  to  it,  after  which  it  is  allowed  to  simmer 
or  boil  slowly  for  about  three  minutes.  But  in  some 
instances  the  milk  is  added  as  served,  a  third  of  a  cup  of 
coffee,  or  less,  and  the  balance  in  hot  milk  being  the 
customary  proportions. 

^  :^  ^  Hfi  il/c  ili: 

In  Cuba,  where  the  most  delicious  coffee  obtainable 
anywhere  is  to  be  found,  the  beverage  is  prepared  by 
first  half  filling  a  coarse  flannel  bag  with  finely  pulverized 
roasted  coffee  and  suspending  it  from  a  nail  or  hook  over 
the  pot  or  other  vessel.  Cold  water  is  next  poured  on 
the  bag  at  intervals  until  the  entire  mass  is  well  saturated, 
when  the  first  drippings  which  have  fallen  into  the  re- 
ceptacle are  poured  again  over  the  bag  until  the  liquid 
becomes  almost  thick  and  very  black.  One  teaspoonful 
of  this  novel  extracted  liquid  placed  in  a  cup  of  boiling 
milk  will  yield  a  draught  of  coffee  that  is  simply  delicious- 
ness  itself — a  nectar  fit  for  the  gods.  In  Cuba  this  flannel 
bag  hangs  day  and  night  on  the  wall,  the  process  of 
pouring  on  the  cold  water  and  allowing  it  to  drip  being 
almost  ceaseless  in  its  operation,  all  classes,  ages  and 
conditions  offering  and  drinking  coffee  there  as  freely  as 
the  Chinese  do  tea  or  as  we  do  water. 


PREPARING   FOR   USE.  235 

Coffee  constitutes  the  almost  exclusive  or  "  national 
beverage  "  of  the  people  of  Brazil,  particularly  in  the 
regions  where  it  is  most  grown.  It  is  made  there  by  first 
roasting,  as  in  this  country,  in  small  roasters,  but  more  fre- 
quently in  iron  pans,  very  high  and  dark,  and  is  prepared 
for  use  by  grinding  or  pulverizing  the  beans  very  fine, 
almost  as  fine  as  flour,  and  putting  it  in  a  muslin  or  woolen 
bag  placed  in  a  pot  or  other  vessel  upon  which  boiling 
water  is  poured,  and  allowed  to  infuse  for  about  fifteen 
minutes.  The  entire  strength  is  thus  extracted,  the 
Brazilians  almost  universally  preferring  their  coffee  strong 
and  "black,"  that  is,  without  milk,  for  which  reason 
larger  quantities  are  also  used. 

Many  connoisseurs  maintain  that  the  roasting  of  coffee 
is  best  done  at  home,  as  no  doubt  it  is,  all  risk  of  adul- 
teration and  stale  coffee  being  avoided  by  this  method. 

So  to  avoid  all  risks  the  consumer  should  purchase  the 
coffee  in  a  whole  state  and  grind  it  personally;  but  any 
suspected  sample  of  ground  coffee  may  be  tested  by  the 
following  simple  and  practical  experiments:  (i).  Note 
whether  the  ground  coffee  hardens  or  "  cakes "  when 
pressed  between  the  fingers,  if  so,  the  coffee  is  evi- 
dently adulterated,  most  probably  with  chicory;  (2). 
Place  a  small  sample  of  the  suspected  coffee  on  top  of 
water  in  a  wineglass,  and  if  part  floats  and  part  sinks  it 
is  undoubtedly  adulterated  either  with  chicory,  roasted 
cereals  or  other  analogous  substances ;  (3).  If  the  cold 
water  in  which  a  sample  of  the  ground  coffee  has  been 
placed  becomes  deeply  colored  it  is  an  evidence  of  the 
presence  of  some  roasted  vegetable  substance;  (4).  But 
to  more  definitely  detect  the  presence  of  chicory  or  other 
foreign  substances  in  ground  coffee,  put  a  teaspoonful  of 
the  suspected  sample  on  the  surface  of  a  glass  of  cold 
water.     If  it  floats  for  some  time,  scarcely  coloring  the 


236  PREPARING   FOR   USE. 

water,  it  is  pure  coffee,  but  if  part  sinks  and  imparts  a 
reddish-brown  tint  to  the  water  as  it  falls  to  the  bottom 
of  the  glass,  it  is  adulterated  with  either  chicory,  ryCj 
peas  or  other  analogous  matter.  Or  again,  place  a  spoon- 
ful of  the  coffee  in  a  white  bottle  of  cold  water  and  shake 
well  for  a  few  moments,  and  if  the  sample  is  pure  it  will 
rise  to  the  top,  scarcely  coloring  the  water,  but  if  adul- 
terated it  will  sink  and  discolor  the  fluid  for  the  following 
reason :  The  pure  coffee  being  enveloped  in  an  oily  sub- 
stance prevents  the  grounds  from  absorbing  the  water, 
while  the  adulterant  being  devoid  of  this  feature  quickly 
absorbs  the  water,  and  thus  becoming  heavy  sinks  and 
discolors  the  fluid  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  according 
to  the  proportion  used ;  (5).  Spread  out  on  a  piece  of 
glass  or  other  smooth  surface  a  little  ground  coffee  and 
moisten  it  with  a  few  drops  of  water,  and  pick  out  by 
means  of  a  needle  the  small  particles.  If  these  particles 
are  of  a  soft  consistence  the  coffee  is  undoubtedly  adul- 
terated, as  the  particles  of  the  coffee-seed  or  bean  are 
hard  and  resisting  in  nature  and  do  not  become  soft  or 
pliable  even  after  prolonged  immersion  in  water.  These 
simple  methods  will  usually  suffice  to  detect  the  ordinary 
forms  of  adulteration,  but  to  determine  the  character  and 
extent  of  the  adulteration  science  and  chemistry  must  be 
resorted  to,  for  which  purpose  the  use  of  a  microscope 
will  prove  the  most  reliable  and  powerful  auxiliary  as  a 
means  of  detection.  The  appended  formulas  are  given 
as  showing  the  different  methods  by  which  coffee  is  or 
may  be  prepared  to  suit  the  varying  tastes  of  different 
consumers,  which  after  testing,  one  may  be  selected  for 
permanent  adoption. 

1.  Put  the  requisite  quantity  of  finely-ground  coffee 
in  a  granitized  vessel  and  pour  on  sufficient  cold  water  to 
just  cover  it  and  allow  to  stand  over  night  in  a  moderately 


PREPARING   FOR   USE.  237 

warm  position.  Put  it  in  the  pot  next  morning,  pour  in 
absolutely  boiling  water  and  allow  to  heat  to  the  boiling 
point  and  set  back  from  the  fire  to  prevent  ebullition. 
By  this  method  the  full  strength  of  the  coffee  will  be 
obtained  and  the  delicate  aroma  preserved  without  the 
extraction  of  its  bitter  and  astringent  properties. 

2,  To  prepare  coffee  by  filtration  without  the  aid  of 
an  urn  or  French  coffee-pot.  Put  finely-ground  coffee 
in  a  thin  muslin  bag  and  place  in  an  ordinary  utensil, 
first  heating  the  vessel  thoroughly  and  pour  on  briskly 
boiling  water  slowly  around  the  bag,  so  as  to  permit  it  to 
absorb  and  saturate  the  coffee  effectually  and  extract  its 
full  strength,  after  which  allow  it  to  stand  and  settle 
without  boiling. 

3.  Another  excellent  method,  known  as  the  "  Cold- 
water  process,"  is  to  mix  the  finely-ground  coffee  with 
the  white  of  an  e^g  and  sufficient  cold  water  to  just 
cover  the  mass,  stirring  it  well  meantime ;  next,  pour  in 
about  one-third  of  cold  water  required  for  the  infusion 
and  set  the  vessel  on  the  range  where  it  will  heat  gradu- 
ally to  the  boiling  point;  just  as  soon  as  it  approaches 
the  boiling  point  add  another  third  of  cold  water  and 
repeat  until  it  again  reaches  the  boiling  point,  then  pour 
on  the  balance  of  cold  water  and  allow  it  to  come  to  the 
boiling  point  again.  After  which  remove  and  let  stand 
where  it  will  simmer  for  a  few  minutes  and  settle,  which 
may  be  hastened  by  the  addition  of  a  little  more  cold 
water;  butifirt  a  hurry,  boiling  water  maybe  used  instead 
of  cold  by  this  method  also,  but  the  cold  water  extracts 
more  fully  the  active  and  refreshing  principles  of  the 
coffee  without  its  deleterious  properties  making  a  stronger 
and  richer  infusion  than  the  boiling  water,  as  more  of  the 
strength  and  aroma  is  carried  off  in  the  vapor  arising 
from  the  use  of  the  latter. 


2-^8  PREPARING   FOR  USE. 


4.  A  quick,  convenient  and  economical  method  for 
producing  a  cup  of  good  coffee  is  to  first  heat  some 
freshly-roasted  and  finely-ground  coffee — an  ounce  to 
each  quart  of  water — in  a  pan  over  a  brisk  fire  and  fill  a 
muslin  bag  with  it,  then  so  arrange  as  to  suspend  it  mid- 
way in  the  pot,  and  pour  on  absolutely  boiling  water 
slowly,  so  as  to  allow  it  to  trickle  through  the  bag. 
After  which  allow  it  to  stand  for  about  ten  minutes 
where  it  will  keep  hot  without  boiling,  and  serve  with  milk 
and  sugar.  But  the  simplest,  most  rapid  and  effective 
method  is  to  place  about  two  ounces  of  ground  coffee  in  a 
stew  or  saucepan,  and  set  it  on  a  bright  fire,  stirring  the 
coffee  meantime  with  a  spoon  until  quite  hot,  and  then 
pouring  over  it  a  pint  of  briskly  boiling  water,  covering 
it  over  closely  for  five  minutes  and  passing  it  through  a 
thin  muslin  cloth,  warming  the  liquid  again  before 
serving. 

6.  For  the  "  Ideal  cup  of  coffee,"  take  one  part  genuine 
Arabian  Mocha  and  two  parts  finest  Java ;  roast  each 
separately  and  blend  well  together,  and  grind  fine  imme- 
diately before  preparing.  Fill  an  ordinary  tea-cup  two- 
thirds  full  of  the  coffee,  with  one  raw  egg  and  shell. 

Place  the  whole  in  a  strainer  or  percolator  and  pour  on 
one  quart  of  briskly  boiling  water,  then  let  stand  for 
about  ten  minutes  where  it  will  keep  hot  without  boil- 
ing, and  serve  with  cream  and  sugar  to  suit,  or,  better 
still,  with  hot  milk.  But  should  a  vessel  without  a 
strainer  or  percolator  be  used  let  the  infusion  boil  up 
once,  and  pour  in  a  cup  of  cold  water,  after  which  let  it 
stand  for  at  least  five  minutes  to  thoroughly  settle,  and 
you  have  a  beverage  brown,  creamy,  rich,  fragrant  and 
delicious. 

A  most  convenient,  simple  and  inexpensive  method  of 
roasting  coffee  by  families,  travelers  or  others  desiring  to 


PREPARING   FOR   USE.  239 

roast  their  own  coffee  is  to  put  the  requisite  quantity — 
usually  about  a  quarter  of  a  pound — in  a  thin  glass  flask 
or  bottle  placed  over  a  charcoal  fire  and  shaking  it  well 
during  the  process  until  completed.  The  non-conducting 
power  gives  this  material  an  advantage  over  the  metal, 
the  coffee  being  less  liable  to  burn  in  it  and  the  coffee 
can  be  better  observed  and  regulated  during  the  progress 
of  the  process.  But  a  simple  iron  pan  may  also  be  used 
effectively  for  the  purpose,  if  care  be  taken  to  keep  the 
coffee  constantly  agitated  with  a  wooden  knife  or  spoon, 
as  a  single  burnt  bean  will  impair  the  aroma,  and  stopping 
the  operation  as  soon  as  the  beans  begin  to  crackle  and 
assume  a  light-brown  color.  Before  grinding  put  the  roasted 
beans  in  an  iron  pan  or  plate  and  place  on  the  range  to  heat 
until  the  aroma  developed  in  the  coffee  by  the  roasting 
operation  perfumes  the  room,  after  which  grind  in  an 
ordinary  mill  and  prepare  according  to  any  of  the  fore- 
going recipes. 

Many  consumers  connect  the  idea  of  the  strength 
of  coffee  with  a  dark  or  black  color  and  fancy  their  coffee 
to  be  thin  and  weak  if  it  does  not  possess  such  color. 
This  is  entirely  erroneous,  as  good,  pure  coffee  is  never 
so,  the  dark  color  being  imparted  by  means  of  a  little 
burnt  sugar  or  other  ingredient.  The  true  flavor  of  pure 
coffee  is  so  little  known  to  some  persons  that  many  who 
drink  it  for  the  first  time  doubt  of  its  goodness  because  it 
tastes  of  the  natural  flavor,  forgetting  that  coffee  which  does 
not  possess  the  flavor  of  coffee  is  not  coffee  at  all,  but  an 
artificial  concoction,  for  which  many  other  things  may  be 
substituted  at  pleasure.  Hence  it  is  that  if  to  the  vile  decoc- 
tions made  from  chicory,  carrots  and  beets  be  added  the 
slightest  quantity  of  pure  coffee,  such  persons  fail  to 
detect  the  difference,  and  which  also  accounts  for  the 
enormous  diffusion  of  such  substitutes  and  adulterants; 


240  PREPARING   FOR   USE. 

such  mixtures  with  an  empirical  taste  most  people  fancy  to 
be  coffee.  Another  error  of  frequent  occurrence  in  the 
preparation  of  coffee  for  the  table,  and  which  results  prob- 
ably from  the  habit  of  tea-making,  is  that  of  using  too  little 
coffee  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  water.  More 
coffee  in  proportion  should  be  used  than  tea,  that  is,  for 
a  full  pint  of  the  infusion  an  ounce  to  an  ounce  and 
a  half  of  coffee,  that  being  about  the  proper  proportions 
for  a  beverage  of  average  strength. 

Cafe  de  Paris — Or  "  French  Coffee  "  is  most  gen- 
erally prepared  by  mixing  a  cupful  of  finely-ground  coffee 
with  a  raw  egg  and  shell  in  a  quart  of  cold  water  and 
placing  the  pot  over  a  brisk  fire,  occasionally  stirring  it 
until  the  boiHng  point  is  reached,  after  which  set  the  vessel 
aside  to  simmer  for  a  few  minutes,  then  pour  on  a  cupful 
of  cold  water  and  allow  to  stand  for  eight  or  ten  minutes 
before  serving,  using  cream  and  sugar  to  suit. 

Cafe  au  Lait — or  "  French  Breakfast  Coffee  "  is  made' 
by  grinding  two  tablespoonfuls  of  coffee  for  each  cup 
required,  and  packing  so^dly  in  a  regular  French  filtering 
coffee-pot,  pouring  on  boiling  water  and  passing  it  from 
two  to  three  times  through  the  coffee-pot.  When  serv- 
ing, boiHng  milk  in  equal  quantity  or  to  suit  the  individ- 
ual taste  is  poured  into  the  cup  from  a  separate  vessel, 
after  which  it  is  sweetened  to  suit.  The  French  usually 
mix  chicory  with  their  coffee,  particularly  when  used  in 
the  form  of  ca/e  au  lait.  For  this  form,  add  half  table- 
spoonful  of  powdered  chicory  to  two  tablespoonfuls  of 
ground  coffee,  and  after  thoroughly  mixing,  pour  on 
boiling  water  and  pass  twice  through  the  coffee-pot 
before  serving.  . 


PREPARING   FOR   USE.  24I 

Cafe  Noir. — A  black  "  after-dinner  coffee,"  is  pre- 
pared by  adding  four  ounces  of  freshly-ground  strong 
coffee  to  a  quart  of  absolutely  boiling  water  and  allow- 
ing it  to  stand  until  it  reaches  the  boiling  point,  mean- 
time passing  it  twice  or  thrice  through  the  coffee-pot 
before  serving. 

Cafe  au  Creme — Is  prepared  by  the  addition  of  boiled 
cream  to  clear,  strong,  fresh-made  coffee  and  allowing  to 
infuse  or  draw  together  from  fifteen  to  twenty  minutes. 

Cafe  Glace. — To  every  six  cups  of  freshly-made  coffee 
add  one  egg  with  cream,  and  sweeten  well,  then  mix 
thoroughly  and  place  in  a  refrigerator  until  frozen  to  the 
consistency  of  cream. 

Cafe  Demi-tasse — Is  a  beverage  prepared  after  the 
manner  of  Ca/e  Noir,  but  sweetened  to  a  much  greater 
extent,  and  to  which  is  added  Cognac,  Kirsch,  or  some 
other  liqueur,  but  when  taken  with  a  small  glass  of 
liqueur  it  becomes  a  Cafe  Gloria. 

Cafe  Capuem — Is  merely  another  name  for  Cafe  au 
lait,  served  in  a  glass  instead  of  a  cup,  while  "  Mazag- 
ran"  is  coffee  served  with  water  instead  of  milk,  the 
coffee  which  is  prepared  exactly  the  same  as  Demi-tasse 
is  served  in  a  tall,  narrow  glass  or  goblet,  a  decanter  of 
cold  water  being  served  with  it,  the  consumer  diluting  to 
suit. 

Cafe  a  la  Russe— -Like  "  Tea  a  la  Russe"  is  simply 

strong,  black  coffee,  prepared  after  the  manner  of  Cafe  ati 

lait,  to  which  a  squeeze  or  slice  of  lemon  is  added  before 

drinking. 

»  _ 

Coffee  a  la  HoUandaise — Is  prepared  in  a  vessel 

composed  of  two  detached  parts,  the  lower  one  answer- 
ing as  a  reservoir  and  the  upper  as  a  filter ;  the  bottom 


242  PREPARING   FOR  USE. 


being  perforated  with  small  holes,  and  over  which  is 
placed  a  piece  of  flannel  to  cover  it  entirely.  The 
requisite  quantity  of  finely-ground  coffee  is  placed  in 
the  filter  and  firmly  pressed  down,  cold  water  being  next 
slowly  poured  over  it,  after  which  it  is  allowed  to  stand 
until  all  the  water  has  percolated  through  it  into  the 
reservoir  beneath;  the  passing  of  the  water  occupying 
at  least  four  hours,  extracting  the  full  strength  and  flavor 
of  the  coffee  in  that  time.  The  vessel  is  high  and 
narrow,  so  as  to  retard  as  much  as  possible  the  passage 
of  the  liquid,  but  large  enough  to  hold  the  requisite 
quantities  of  both  coffee  and  water  at  the  same  time  and 
to  avoid  the  necessity  of  an  additional  supply  of  water. 

Vienna  Coffee. — The  famous  Vienna  Coffee  is  pre- 
pared in  a  somewhat  complicated  contrivance,  resem- 
bling a  cylinder  or  urn,  fitted  with  a  coarse  sieve,  the 
water  being  boiled  by  means  of  an  alcohol  lamp  under- 
neath. When  the  water  boils  the  steam  passes  through 
a  tube  and  at  the  same  time  through  the  finely-ground 
coffee,  which  has  previously  been  placed  loose  on  the 
top,  but  protected  by  several  strainers.  A  glass  top 
attached  to  the  urn  enables  the  cook  to  observe  when 
the  coffee  is  properly  prepared,  the  process  securing  a 
perfect  infusion  of  the  coffee,  and  at  the  same  time  pre- 
serving its  full  aroma  and  other  properties. 

Creole  Coffee — Is  prepared  by  distillation,  the  coffee 
being  first  roasted  until  it  has  assumed  a  uniformly 
brown  color,  after  which  it  is  covered  up  and  allowed 
to  cool.  It  is  then  ground  and  covered  up  carefully 
again  until  ready  for  use,  when  the  requisite  quantity  is 
put  in  a  filtered  coffee-pot  into  which  it  is  pressed  com- 
pactly, a  little  briskly  boiling  water  is  then  poured  on  and 
allowed  to  filter  through  the  coffee,  when  more  boiling 


PREPARING   FOR   USE.  243 

water  is  poured  on,  the  process  being  repeated  about 
every  five  minutes  until  ready  to  serve.  The  result  of  this 
process  is  very  strong  and  rich  in  extract,  which  is  often 
preserved  in  a  perfectly  air-tight  jar  or  other  vessel  until 
again  required  for  use.  A  single  teaspoonful  of  which 
is  sufficient  to  yield  a  rich  and  creamy  cup  of  the  bever- 
age when  desired. 

Extract  of  Coffee— Is,  properly  speaking,  the  true 
"  Essence  of  Coffee."  It  is  best  obtained  by  distilling 
one  part  of  pure  ground  coffee  with  five  parts  water  and 
keeping  them  at  a  temperature  of  209°  C.  in  a  very  close 
vessel  for  about  ten  minutes,  steaming  and  evaporating 
it  at  a  low  temperature  in  a  vacuum  pan  until  reduced  to 
one  part.  Or  it  may  be  more  conveniently  obtained  by 
the  Cuban  and  New  Orleans  methods  already  described, 
one  spoonful  of  which  yields  a  delicious  cup  of  coffee 
instantaneously  as  desired. 

It  is  not  too  much  to  state  that  more  than  one- half  of 
the  beverage  which  masquerades  and  is  sold  under  the 
name  of  coffee,  is  unworthy  of  the  appellation  and  that 
the  majority  of  the  people  of  this  country  live  and  die 
without  ever  knowing  even  the  true  taste  of  that  delicious 
and  exhilarating  beverage ;  people  being  prone  to  think 
that  they  know  all  about  coffee  without  ever  studying 
what  special  qualities  the  different  varieties  possess,  or  the 
best  methods  of  preparing  it.  As  a  nation,  the  American 
people  want  the  best  of  everything  and  expect  to  get  it, 
and  a  country  which  expends  so  many  millions  of 
dollars  annually  for  coffee,  can  well  afford  to  study  the 
best  methods  of  selecting  and  properly  preparing  it. 
But  what  avails  the  best  material  if  it  be  not  prepared 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  develop  and  extract  its  most 
volatile,  delicate,  subtle  and  refreshing  properties,  as  the 
same   properties   may  be   depressing  and  injurious,  or 


244  PREPARING  FOR  USE. 


exhilarating  and  beneficial  proportionately  as  they  are 
treated  ? 

A  large  proportion  of  housekeepers  purchase  their 
coffee  already  roasted,  and  many  more  buy  it  ground,  but 
if  bought  whole  while  still  hot  and  kept  in  an  air-tight  can 
until  required  and  then  ground,  the  improvement  in  the 
hquor  would  amply  repay  for  the  trouble  expended,  as 
much  of  the  fragrance  and  aroma  of  the  roasted  coffee 
is  lost  by  laying  too  long,  there  being  even  a  greater 
loss  when  the  coffee  is  ground  for  too  long  a  time.  But, 
on  the  other  hand,  unless  the  roasting  is  done  very  care- 
fully at  home,  the  coffee  will  not  be  good,  either,  as  a  few 
burnt  beans  in  the  roast  will  invariably  spoil  the  drink. 
So  that  when  careful  attention  cannot  be  given  to  the 
proper  roasting  of  coffee  at  home,  it  will  be  better  to  pur- 
chase it  in  the  whole  bean  already  roasted  but  never 
ground,  using  a  small  mill  which  can  be  regulated  to 
grind  coarse  or  fine  as  needed. 

To  roast  coffee  at  home,  put  the  raw  beans  about  an 
inch  deep  in  an  ordinary  dripping-pan,  which  must  be 
perfectly  clean,  and  hold  over  a  brisk  fire  and  stir  fre- 
quently until  the  beans  are  sufficiently  browned.  When 
the  coffee  becomes  a  cinnamon-brown,  and  begin  to 
crackle,  add  one  tablespoonful  of  fresh  butter,  stirring 
well  at  the  same  time,  after  which  remove  and  place 
while  hot  in  a  can,  and  cover  closely,  again  heating 
the  coffee  before  or  after  grinding  prior  to  preparing. 
Or  place  one  pound  of  raw  beans  in  a  broad  dripping- 
pan,  shaking  and  stirring  it  until  they  begin  to  brown 
and  crackle,  then  turn  the  pan  from  end  to  end  rapidly, 
until  they  are  evenly  colored  to  a  cinnamon  or  choco- 
late shade.  Then  place  the  pan  on  a  table  to  rest,  and 
stir  into  the  coffee  the  beaten  whites  of  two  eggs  and  a 
tablespoonful  of  fresh  butter,  glazing  every  bean,  as  this 


in 

i 

P 

safe 

r 

^^^^H^^ii^  ^^^^Ck^^ 

^^^^^ 

• 

^K^^^^^'^ 

PREPARING   FOR  USE.  245 


preserves  the  aroma  until  ground.  When  cool  shake  the 
beans  in  a  small  sieve,  so  that  they  may  not  stick  to- 
gether, and  put  them  in  an  air-tight  canister  until 
required. 

A  combination  of  one  part  Mocha,  one  part  Rio  and 
two  parts  Java  or  Maracaibo  will  yield  a  heavy,  rich, 
strong-flavored  coffee,  but  not  as  smooth  and  pleasing  as 
if  the  Rio  were  omitted,  unless  for  those  preferring  it. 
In  other  words,  when  a  smooth  and  delicate  flavored 
beverage  is  required,  use  one-third  Mocha  and  two-thirds 
Java.  When  strong  and  heavy  is  desired,  use  Rio  and 
Maracaibo  or  temper  the  former  by  combining  it  with  some 
of  the  milder  kinds.  When  a  rich,  smooth  beverage  is 
desired,  a  combination  of  one-third  Mocha  and  two-thirds 
Java ;  if  a  medium,  Java  and  Maracaibo  or  some  other 
good,  mild  grade.  But  when  a  heavy  body  and  strong 
flavor  is  required,  a  blend  of  Rio  or  Santos  and  Maracaibo 
in  equal  proportions  should  be  made.  Good  Maracaibo 
being  equal  to  many  Javas  and  is  constantly  substituted 
for  it  by  unprincipled  dealers,  both  wholesale  and  retail. 

A  combination  consisting  of  one-third  Mocha  and  two- 
thirds  Java  fresh  roasted  and  fresh  ground  makes  an 
ideal  cup  of  coffee.  Two  tablespoonfuls  or  one  ounce  of 
this  blend  to  each  pint  of  boiling  water  produces  a 
beverage  that  cannot  fail  to  suit  the  average  taste.  But 
for  consumers  who  prefer  a  heavy-bodied  beverage  a 
combination  of  equal  proportions  of  Santos,  Caracas  and 
Maracaibo,  will  be  found  to  yield  a  rich,  heavy,  pungent 
and  fragrant  liquor.  These  quantities  are  intended  for  a 
strong  beverage,  but  where  only  a  moderate  degree  of 
strength  is  desired  it  is  best  to  use  only  half  these  quan- 
tities of  coffee  to  the  same  quantity  of  water. 

Some  recent  experiments  in  Germany  confirm  the 
opinion  that  coffee,  which  is  an  aid  to  digestion,  should 


24^  PREPARING   FOR  USE. 


be  an  infusion  and  not  a  decoction,  for  which  particular 
reason  alone  the  after-dinner  coffee  especially  should  be 
an  infusion,  as  the  caffeine  of  coffee,  which  is  the  ele- 
ment most  stimulating,  is  best  drawn  out  by  keeping  the 
coffee  at  the  boiling  point,  but  without  boiling,  for  a  few 
minutes  before  serving,  as  prolonged  boiling  extracts 
the  astringent  property,  tannin.  There  seems  to  be, 
however,  a  general  tendency  in  favor  of  the  filtering 
process,  by  which  the  use  of  all  foreign  substances,  such 
as  eggs,  isinglass,  hartshorn,  codfish  and  sole-skins,  to 
clear  and  settle  it,  may  be  dispensed  with  altogether. 

To  make  filtered  coffee  with  cold  water,  put  one 
teacupful  of  finely-ground  coffee  in  a  small  pan  and  heat 
over  the  fire.  Stir  constantly  until  hot  and  then  put 
the  hot  coffee  in  the  filter  of  the  coffee-pot,  placing  the 
coarse  strainer  on  top  and  pour  in  a  cupful  of  cold  water 
by  degrees,  then  cover  and  let  stand  for  half  an  hour. 
Next  add  three  cupfuls  of  cold  water,  a  cupful  at  a  time, 
and  when  all  the  water  has  passed  through  the  filter,  pour 
it  out,  and  pass  it  again  through  the  filter,  cover  closely 
and  heat  it  to  the  boiling  point  before  serving.  The 
coffee  prepared  in  this  manner  will  be  perfectly  clear  and 
sparkling  in  liquor,  smooth,  rich  and  fragrant  in  flavor,  or 
mix  the  coffee  with  the  white  of  an  &'g^  together,  then 
pour  one-third  of  the  requisite  quantity  of  cold  water 
and  set  the  pot  on  the  range  where  it  will  heat  up 
gradually  until  it  begins  to  boil ;  then  add  another  third 
of  cold  water,  and  when  it  again  begins  to  boil  add  the 
balance  of  cold  water  and  allow  it  to  again  reach  the 
boiling  point;  remove  and  let  stand  for  a  few  minutes 
to  settle  before  serving.  By  this  method  boiling  water 
may  be  used  instead  of  cold  if  so  desired,  but  the  use  of 
cold  water  makes  a  richer  and  stronger  infusion,  as  none 
of  the  aroma  of  the  coffee  is  lost  by  evaporation,  and  the 


PREPARING   FOR  USE.  247 


refreshing  properties  are  better  extracted  by  the  slower 
process. 

Filtered  coffee  should  never  be  boiled  ;  so  that  by  plac- 
ing the  coffee-pot  in  a  vessel  of  boiling  water  it  keeps  the 
coffee  at  the  boiling  point,  but  prevents  it  from  boiling. 
Coffee  made  by  the  cold-water  process  is  invariably 
stronger  than  when  made  with  boiling  water,  and  is,  in 
the  opinion  of  many  connoisseurs,  much  better,  so  that 
a  reduced  quantity  of  coffee  will  answer.  Another 
advantage  of  using  cold  water  in  the  filtering  process  is 
that  the  coffee  may  be  prepared  from  it  at  any  time  and 
heated  as  required ;  but  if  to  be  served  after  dinner  it 
will  be  better  if  made  with  three  cupfuls  of  water  instead 
of  four. 

But  no  matter  what  method  of  preparing  is  adopted, 
or  what  kind  of  vessel  the  beverage  is  prepared  in,  the 
result  will  be  satisfactory  if  the  coffee  be  pure,  good  and 
fresh  roasted,  fresh  ground  and  fresh  made  with  fresh 
water,  fresh  boiled  and  fresh  served.  But  always  serve 
with  whipped  cream  or  hot  milk,  heating  the  milk  to 
the  boiling  point,  but  never  allow  it  to  boil. 


OH^^I*^E>ie    TJS:. 


ll  N  chemical  composition  the  seeds  or  beans  of  coffee 
^  are  complex,  containing  as  they  do  variable  pro- 
portions of  proximate  principles.  The  appended  analysis 
represents  the  average  constitution  of  raw  coffee,  according 
to  M.  Payen,  and  which  is  accepted  as  the  standard  : — 

Constituents^.  Parts. 

Fat, lo  to  13 

Water,    .    , 12 

Caffeine, 0.8 

Cellulose, 34 

Legumen  and  caseine, 10 

Glucose,  dextrine  and  organic  acid,     ....  15 

Caffeone  and  aromatic  oils,  ....*..  .002 

Caffetannate  and  potassium, 3  to  5 

Viscid  essential  oil  (insoluble  in  water),  .     .     .  .001 

Ash  and  other  mineral  matter, 6 

Other  nitrogeneous  substances, 3 

In  addition  to  the  foregoing,  Payen  also  describes 
some  0.8  per  cent,  of  free  Caffeine  and  very  small  quan- 
tities of  essential  and  aromatic  oils,  amounting  to  about 
0.003  P^^  cent,  of  the  coffee,  in  addition  to  other  azotized 
and  saline  matter. 

In  the  process  of  roasting,  coffee  undergoes  certain 
chemical  changes,  as  before  roasting  it  contains  from  5.7 
to  7.8  per  cent,  of  sugar,  which  is  reduced  to  i.i,  and 


250  CHEMICAL  CONSTITUENTS. 

sometimes  even  to  zero,  after  being  roasted,  and  from 
which,  it  would  appear,  that  the  description  of  sugar 
contained  in  the  raw  coffee  is  destroyed  by  the  roasting 
process  to  which  it  is  subjected  previous  to  using. 

COMPARATIVE  ANALiYSIS  OF  RAW   AND  ROASTED 
COFFEES. 

Constituents.  Raw.  Roasted. 

Ash, 3.97  5.17 

Fat, 11.42  8.30 

Water, 8.26  0.36 

Sugar, 8.18  1.84 

Gluten, 10.68  12.03 

Caffeine, i.io  1.06 

Cellulose, 42.36  44.96 

Extractive  matter, 14-03  26.28 

Total  parts, 100  100 

In  the  operation  of  roasting,  the  saccharine  matter  is 
converted  into  caramel,  and  a  portion  of  the  caffeine  is 
liberated  from  its  combination  with  the  caffeic  acid,  the 
latter  still  retaining  its  astringent  properties  and  develop- 
ing into  a  bitter,  soluble  principle.  A  change  in  the  fat  of 
coffee  is  also  undergone  in  the  roasting,  as  ether  will 
extract  only  from  4  to  5  per  cent,  of  fat  from  the  raw 
bean,  while  it  readily  extracts  double  that  quantity  from 
the  roasted  bean.  So  striking  is  this  fact  that  Von  Bibra 
goes  so  far  as  to  claim  that  the  roasting  process  produces 
fat,  but  most  probably  the  process  is  only  mechanical 
and  not  chemical  in  its  action  in  bursting  the  *'  fat  cells," 
and  thereby  rendering  the  fat  accessible  to  the  solvent 
action  of  the  ether.  Roasted  coffee  is  also  tolerably  rich 
in  nitrogen,  containing  from  2.5  to  3  per  cent,  but  is 
found  to  be  quite  devoid  of  starch.  The  operation  of 
roasting,  in  addition,  tends  to  make  coffee  soluble  in 
boiling  water,  as,  when  raw  coffee  is  perfectly  exhausted 


CHEMICAL   CONSTITUENTS.  25 1 

f 

in  boiling  water,  it  will  yield  only  some  25  per  cent,  of 
soluble  matter,  while  roasted  coffee,  on  the  other  hand, 
when  completely  exhausted  by  means  of  boiling  water, 
yields  as  high  as  40  per  cent,  in  some  instances.  A 
chemical  analysis  of  the  bean  after  being  roasted  also 
shows  that  it  contains  20  per  cent,  of  water  and  about  60 
per  cent,  of  cellulose  a  substance  resembling  starch  or 
grape  sugar.  But  the  agents  that  especially  distinguish 
coffee  from  all  other  substances  are  the  Caffeine,  Caffeone 
and  Caffeic,  each  of  which  constituents  possess  virtues 
and  effects  peculiar  to  itself,  and  produce,  by  acting  in 
combination,  the  general  effect  of  coffee. 

Gafifeine — Is  the  principle  to  which  coffee  owes  its 
refreshing  and  agreeable  properties.  It  is  an  inodorous 
agent,  having  a  slightly  bitter  taste,  and  belonging  to 
that  group  of  chemical  agents  known  as  alkaloids.  It 
is  identical  with  the  theine  of  tea,  and  also  forms  the 
characteristic  principle  of  cocoa,  mate,  the  guarana  and 
many  other  plants  used  by  the  inhabitants  of  widely- 
separated  countries,  on  account  of  their  yielding  a  slightly 
exciting  and  refreshing  beverage  and  apparently  forming 
a  necessary  diet  for  mankind  in  general.  Its  quantity 
varies  from  0.8  to  i  per  cent,  in  the  different  kinds  of 
coffee,  being  greatest  in  Martinique  and  smallest  in  San 
Domingo.  According  to  Chandler,  pure  Caffeine  appears 
in  white  silky  needles,  having  no  odor,  and  containing 
about  8  per  cent,  of  water  of  crystalization,  which  it  parts 
with  at  1 50°  C,  being  apparently  soluble  in  cold  water,  but 
much  more  so  in  hot,  still  less  so  in  alcohol  and  still  less 
in  ether,  acting  as  a  weak  base  and  dissolving  in  acids 
from  which  it  may  be  crystalized  by  evaporation.  When 
boiled  with  fixed  caustic  alkalies  it  decomposes  and 
yields    methlamine,  while  heating   with  basic-hydrates 


252  CHEMICAL   CONSTITUENTS. 

alters  it  to  a  stronger  base,  termed  Caffeidine,  but  when 
boiled  with  an  excess  of  nitric  acid  and  evaporated  at  a 
gentle  heat  gives  it  a  reddish  color  resembling  that 
obtained  from  minoxide;  the  addition  of  a  little  ammonia 
making  it  again  quite  characteristic.  Administered  in 
strong  doses  it  causes  trembling  and  a  kind  of  intoxica- 
tion not  unlike  that  resulting  from  alcoholic  stimulants, 
but  diminishes  the  work  of  organic  tissue  at  the  same 
time. 

Caflfeone.— Besides  Caffeine  coffee  contains  a  volatile 
or  essential  oil  chemically  termed  Cafifeone  which,  accord- 
ing to  some  authorities,  is  not  present  in  the  raw  bean, 
but  is  the  result  of  an  essential  change  produced  in  the 
coffee  by  the  roasting  process.  It  is  to  this  subtle  and 
fugitive  principle,  however,  that  roasted  coffee  owes  its 
peculiar  and  fragrant  aroma,  an  odor  possessed  by  no 
other  known  substance.  When  chemically  separated  by 
ether  from  the  coffee  it  presents  the  appearance  and  con- 
sistency of  cocoa- butter,  which  in  roasting  permeates  the 
entire  bean,  but  if  the  heat  be  too  intense  or  the  roasting 
prolonged  beyond  the  proper  time,  it  is  entirely  dissipated 
and  lost,  the  result  being  to  seriously  injure  the  coffee. 
And  although  coffee  forms  part  of  the  daily  food  of  more 
than  half  the  nations  of  the  world,  we  are  still  uncertain 
of  the  chemical  nature,  composition  and  effects  of  these 
products  of  roasted  coffee,  and  particularly  of  this  "oil  of 
coffee,"  one  of  the  most  important  characteristic  con- 
stituents of  the  bean.  The  existence  of  this  coffee  oil 
makes  itself  known  in  a  striking  manner  by  its  roasting; 
being  forced  out  of  the  bean  by  the  intense  heat,  it  is 
partially  volatilized,  and  together  with  the  other  products 
of  the  roasting,  produces  the  characteristic  effects  and 
aroma  of  roasted  coffee.  In  very  strong  black  coffee  it  is 
found  in  oil-like  drops  floating  on  the  surface,  the  amount 


CHEMICAL   CONSTITUENTS.  253 


in  the  raw  bean  varying  from  8  to  13  per  cent.,  at  least  one- 
half  of  which  is  dissipated  and  lost  in  the  roasting,  so  that  it 
might  prove  a  paying  experiment  to  attempt  to  collect 
this  oil,  especially  in  large  establishments  where  much 
coffee  is  roasted,  several  pounds  of  this  oil  being  wasted 
daily  which  might  find  a  ready  market  at  a  handsome  profit 
in  the  manufacture  of  liqueurs.  It  is  best  obtained  by 
crushing  about  50  pounds  of  roasted  coffee  in  a  mortar 
and  then  extracting  with  the  aid  of  ether  and  alcohol. 
The  oil  of  coffee  obtained  in  this  manner  is  a  thick,  green, 
almost  transparent  substance,  which  deposits  after  a  time 
a  few  long  needles  of  caffeine,  proving  that  since  caffeine  is 
not  extracted  from  the  exhausted  beans  by  ether,  and  very 
little  is  taken  up  by  the  alcohol  employed,  the  coffee 
from  which  the  oil  has  been  extracted  may  be  again  used 
for  the  manufacture  of  caffeine.  The  oil  becomes  turbid 
in  about  six  months  from  the  time  of  extraction,  although 
preserved  in  hermetically-sealed  bottles  small  groups  of 
crystals  forming  in  the  middle  of  the  liquid,  but  slowly 
settling  in  the  bottom,  forming  a  precipitate,  which  in  time 
forms  a  cloudy  mass  of  crystals,  consisting  of  the  solid 
fatty  acids,  but  the  upper  layer  remaining  clear  and  trans- 
parent for  years,  and  of  a  beautiful  green  color,  proving  that 
a  portion  of  the  coffee  oil  consists  of  liquid  oleic  acid. 
Taken  alone,  this  "  oil  of  coffee "  is  found  to  produce 
a  gentle  perspiration  and  exhilaration,  as  well  as  to 
stimulate  the  mental  faculties,  but  is  claimed  to  retard,  in 
a  marked  degree,  the  process  of  food  assimilation,  and 
consequently  the  waste  of  tissue  matter.  It  also  produces 
an  aperient  effect  on  the  bowels,  while  overdoses  cause 
sleeplessness  and  symptoms  of  sthenic  excitement,  a 
condition  clearly  bordering  on  inflammation. 

Experiments  made  with  Caffeine  and  Caffeone  prove 
that  they  produce  different  effects  on  the  animal  economy, 


254  CHEMICAL   CONSTITUENTS. 

the  former  exercising  a  sedative  and  tranquilizing  action, 
being  more  prolonged  in  its  effect  than  the  latter,  which 
acts  strongly  as  a  transient  stimulant  and  exhilarant. 
But  in  the  drinking  of  an  ordinary  cup  of  coffee  both 
these  actions  are  obtained,  the  stimulation  and  exhilara- 
tion preceding  the  state  of  sedation  and  repose.  The 
essential  principle  of  the  coffee,  however,  is  the  alkaloid 
caffeine  and  not  the  volatile  oil  caffeone,  the  effects 
of  both  constituents  being  different  in  time  and  character- 
The  former  slows  the  heart's  action  and  expends  its 
main  force  on  the  spinal  cord,  to  which  effect  is  due  the 
shaking  hand  of  the  inveterate  coffee-drinker  and  the 
marked  tremor  which  sometimes  follows  a  copious 
drink  of  coffee  when  taken  on  an  empty  stomach,  while 
the  latter  reduces  the  arterial  tension,  thereby  allowing 
a  freer  flow  of  blood  and  a  more  rapid  action  of  the  heart, 
at  the  same  time  stimulating  the  brain,  rendering  the 
mind  clear  and  promoting  wakefulness,  being  also  speedier 
and  more  transient  in  effect. 

Gaffeic. — Caffetannate,  or  "  tannic  acid,"  as  it  exists  in 
the  raw  bean  of  coffee  possesses  an  astringent  action,  which 
is  greatly  modified  in  the  roasting  and  neutralized  by 
the  aperient  properties  of  the  Caffeone.  A  great  deal 
of  doubt  still  exists  as  to  the  exact  agency  of  this 
property  in  coffee,  many  chemists  contending  that  to  it 
the  flavor  and  other  properties  of  the  coffee  as  a  bever- 
age is  due.  It  is  a  powerful  astringent  principle,  puck- 
ering up  the  mouth  when  chewed,  and  is  the  property  to 
which  coffee  owes  its  bitterness  when  boiled  or  over- 
infused,  but  whether  it  contributes  in  any  degree  to  the 
exhilarating,  satisfying  or  narcotic  action  of  the  coffee 
has  not  yet  been  definitely  determined.  But  united, 
their  specific  properties   modified  by  combination  and 


CHEMICAL  CONSTITUENTS.  255 

acting  and  reacting  upon  each  other,  these  three  con- 
stituents give  to  coffee  its  peculiar  properties  and  effects 
on  the  human  system. 

To  the  chemist,  coffee  and  tea  are  much  the  same, 
their  two  alkaloids,  caffeine  and  theine,  being  to  them 
undistinguishable  one  from  the  other,  each  also  con- 
taining a  volatile  or  essential  oil,  the  difference  in  the 
taste  of  which  is  doubtless  due  -to  subtle  properties 
which  the  chemist  is  so  far  unable  to  detect.  For  this 
reason  the  following  comparative  analysis  of  coffee  and 
tea  may  be  found  interesting,  as  showing  how  closely 
they  are  chemically  allied  : — 

Constituents.  Coffee.  Tea. 

Water, 12.0  5.0 

Theine, 0.75  0.5 

Tannin, 5.  15.0 

Gluten, 13.0  25.0 

Wood  fibre, 34.0  24.0 

Volatile  oil, 13.0  4.0 

Gum  and  sugar, 15.0  21.0 

Ash  or  residue, 7.0  5.0 

From  recent  experiments  it  appears  that  the  quantity 
of  tannin  in  the  coffee  bean  is  not  over  about  one-third 
of  that  contained  in  the  tea  leaf  and  frequently  is  consider- 
ably less,  six  samples  of  coffee  being  tested  in  the  same 
manner  as  tea  for  the  amount  of  soluble  tannin,  and 
steeped  in  fifty  parts  of  water.  Equal  quantities  of  coffee 
and  tea  were  also  analyzed  and  the  amount  of  tannin 
estimated  with  the  result  that,  on  an  average,  tea  yielded 
nearly  four  times  as  much  tannin  than  the  coffee,  which 
proves  that  in  case  of  poisoning  by  alkaloids  strong  tea 
is  better  than  coffee  as  an  antidote.  When  used  in 
equal  quantities  tea  yields  about  twice  the  amount  of 
theine  that  coffee   does  to  the  water  in   which  it  is 


25*5  MEDICINAL  EFFECTS. 


infused,  but  as  we  use  a  greater  weight  of  coffee  than 
we  do  of  tea  in  preparing  the  beverage,  a  cup  of 
coffee  of  ordinary  strength  will  contain  as  much  theine 
as  a  cup  of  ordinary  strong  tea.  While,  however,  coffee 
checks  waste  and  is  naturally  a  food,  the  same  cannot  be 
said  of  tea,  the  specific  effect  of  which  is  to  quicken 
respiration  and  the  vital  functions  generally. 


Coffee  belongs  to  the  medicinal  or  auxiliary  class  of 
food  substances,  being  solely  valuable  for  its  stimulating 
and  exhilarating  effect  upon  the  nervous  and  vascular 
system.  It  produces  a  feeling  of  buoyancy  and  exhila- 
ration comparable  to  a  certain  stage  of  alcoholic  intoxica- 
tion, but  which  does  not  end  in  the  depression  and  collapse 
produced  by  the  latter.  It  increases  the  frequency  of  the 
pulse,  lightens  the  sensations  of  fatigue  and  sustains  the 
strength  under  prolonged  and  severe  muscular  exertion. 
It  also  contains  valuable  medicinal  properties,  among 
which  is  that  of  being  an  anti-soporific,  and  hence  most 
useful  in  narcotic  poisoning.  It  has  also  been  found  to 
be  the  best  stimulant  for  administration  to  persons  res- 
cued from  starvation  or  perishing  from  intense  cold,  as 
ardent  spirits  when  given  under  these  conditions  often 
prove  fatal.  It  dispels  languor,  stupor  and  lethargy  and 
as  an  antidote  is  a  specific  in  cases  of  poisoning  by 
opium  and  morphine. 

The  early  history  of  coffee  informs  us  of  its  use  among 
the  Arabians  for  its  exhilarating  as  well  as  its  curative 
powers,  being  used  in  Mecca  and  Medina  originally  for  the 
purpose  of  overcoming  torpor  and  drowsiness  by  the 
Mohamedan   monks,   its   exciting  and    sleep-dispelling 


MEDICINAL   EFFECTS.  257 


power  tending  much  to  bring  it  into  popular  favor  in 
these  cities  as  a  medicine  as  well  as  a  beverage.  At  this 
early  period  it  was  claimed  that  '^  this  liquor  purified  the 
blood  by  gentle  agitation,  dissipated  the  ill-condition  of 
the  stomach  and  aroused  the  spirits."  In  the  treatment 
of  spasmodic  asthma  its  utility  is  well  established  as  well 
as  in  the  cure  of  whooping  cough,  cholera  infantum  and 
similar  complaints,  being  also  an  excellent  preventative 
against  all  infectious  and  epidemical  diseases.  While  in 
hysterical  attacks,  for  which,  in  many  instances,  the 
physician  can  find  no  diagnosis,  coffee  has  proven  to  be 
one  of  the  greatest  helps. 

Fresh-roasted  coffee  has  proven  to  be  an  effective  dis- 
peller  of  foul  gases  as  well  as  a  valuable  disinfectant  in  the 
sick-room,  or  any  enclosed  space  where  the  fumes  can 
penetrate.  As  an  instantaneous  deodorizer,  particularly 
in  the  sick-room,  where  it  has  no  equal,  possessing 
wonderful,  almost  magical  power,  all  foul  and  noxious 
exhalations  being  immediately  neutralized  or  dispelled 
by  simply  passing  a  chafing-dish  of  fresh-roasted  coffee 
through  the  room.  As  a  disinfectant  fresh-roasted  coffee 
has  been  invaluable  as  an  absorbing  agent  in  purifying  the 
atmosphere  of  all  foul-smelling  and  offensive  odors, 
especially  when  roasted  in  the  vicinity  of  the  room  or 
place  to  be  fumigated.  When  roasted,  and  while  still  hot, 
if  placed  on  a  tray  or  other  open  vessel  in  the  centre  of 
the  apartment,  by  the  time  it  has  cooled  the  surrounding 
atmosphere  will  be  rendered  thoroughly  pure  and  sweet. 
Or,  better  and  more  advantageous  still,  by  heating  an  iron 
fire-shovel  red  hot  and  placing  a  handful  of  ground  coffee 
on  it  and  carrying  it  around  the  room  or  house  to  be 
disinfected  in  this  condition  until  it  cools.  The  vapor 
arising  from  the  coffee  so  heated  will  meantime  have 
destroyed  all  disagreeable  and  noxious  odors. 


258  MEDICINAL   EFFECTS. 


Experiments  recently  made  with  roasted  coffee  in 
France  prove  it  to  be  one  of  the  most  powerful  deodor- 
izers yet  discovered  for  the  dissipation  of  all  noxious 
odors.  As  an  instance  of  its  great  worth  in  this  case,  a 
quantity  of  decomposing  meat  was  hung  up  in  a  tightly- 
closed  room  and  a  tin  pan  containing  a  few  handfuls  of 
fresh-roasted  and  ground  coffee  was  placed  over  a  spirit 
lamp,  as  the  pan  became  hot  and  the  vapor  from  the 
coffee  filled  the  room,  it  was  found  that  the  foul  smell  of 
the  decomposed  meat  was  entirely  removed,  even  when 
standing  close  up  to  it.  While  Professor  Beer,  an  eminent 
Vienna  oculist,  maintains  that  the  vapor  arising  from  pure, 
hot  and  fresh-made  coffee  is  very  invigorating  to  the  eyes, 
but  at  the  same  time  attributing  many  frequent  occurring 
cases  of  affections  to  the  sight  to  the  constant  use  of 
chicory,  as  well  as  to  the  habitual  use  of  the  decoctions 
prepared  from  the  admixtures  of  chicory  and  coffee. 

Coffee  and  pepper  are  highly  recommended  as  a  certain 
specific  for  rheumatism,  as  well  as  in  many  forms  of  gout. 
In  such  cases  the  proper  proportions  consist  of  a  pint 
of  hot,  strong,  black  coffee,  which  must  be  perfectly 
pure,  and  seasoned  with  a  teaspoonful  of  pure  black 
pepper,  thoroughly  mixed  before  drinking,  and  the 
preparation  taken  just  before  retiring.  Quite  a  number 
of  chronic  cases  of  rheumatism  are  reputed  on  excellent 
authority  to  have  been  cured  by  a  single  dose  of  this 
simple  remedy.  The  greatest  care  has  to  be  exercised, 
however,  that  cold  is  not  contracted  through  the  free 
perspiration  that  follows  its  use,  yet  severe  colds  may  also 
be  broken  up  and  cured  by  its  administration.  Such  a 
simple  and  convenient  remedy  is  certainly  worth  a  trial,  as 
it  is,  at  least,  perfectly  harmless,  and  makes  no  demand  on 
the  doctor  or  druggist.  Another  use  for  coffee  medi- 
cinally, is  in  nausea  and  violent  retching,  for  which  purpose 


MEDICINAL  EFFECTS,  259 


a  strong  infusion  is  prepared  and  *'  sipped  "  slowly  while 
very  hot.  This  oftentimes  acts  effectively  alone,  but  is 
much  more  so  if  a  strong  mustard  plaster  is  applied  to  the 
pit  of  the  stomach  at  the  same  time.  Its  beneficial  effects 
in  extreme  alcoholism  is  already  too  well  known  for 
description,  but  is  as  yet  not  fully  appreciated  in  such 
cases,  nor  as  to  what  extent  this  otherwise  exhilarating  and 
potent  beverage  may  be  substituted  in  lieu  of  spirituous 
and  malt  liquors.  It  is  positively  asserted  by  men  of  high 
professional  ability  that  when  the  system  requires  a  good 
stimulant,  nothing  equals  a  cup  of  good,  strong,  fresh-made 
coffee  for  the  purpose,  so  that  those  who  may  desire  to 
rescue  a  drunkard  from  his  bane  will  find  no  better  substi- 
tute for  alcoholic  spirits  or  malt  liquors  than  strong,  fresh- 
made  coffee,  in  the  proportions  of  two  ounces  of  good, 
pure  coffee  to  one  part  of  boiling  water,  making  an  excel- 
lent tonic  beverage,  but  must  be  administered  without  the 
addition  of  either  milk  or  sugar  in  these  particular  cases. 
It  is  also  positively  asserted  by  those  who  have  tried  it 
that  malarial  and  other  miasmatic  complaints  are  prevented 
by  drinking  a  cup  of  hot  coffee  before  venturing  out  into 
the  morning  air,  and  by  many  eminent  physicians  it  is 
regarded  as  almost  a  specific  in  typhoid  and  other  ende- 
mic fevers,  so  much  so  that  in  malarial  and  intermittent 
fevers  it  has  been  used  by  the  best  physicians  with  the 
happiest  results,  coffee  being  opposed  to  malarial  and  all 
noxious  vapors,  particularly  in  alienating  and  reducing 
the  earlier  attacks,  and,  when  properly  administered  in 
such  complaints,  it  is  found  superior  to  the  sulphate  of 
quinine  in  many  extreme  cases,  while  in  that  low  state  of 
intermittent  fever  as  found  on  the  Mississippi  and  the 
banks  of  all  large  rivers,  accompanied  with  torpid  liver 
and  enlarged  spleen,  when  judiciously  prepared  and  ad- 
ministered it  has  been  found  one  of  the  safest  and  most 


26o  MEDICINAL   EFFECTS. 


effective  remedies.  In  districts  rife  with  malarial  and 
other  low  fevers  the  drinking  of  hot  coffee  before  pass- 
ing into  the  infected  districts  will  enable  persons  living 
in  such  regions  to  escape  all  contagion,  the  nervous  sys- 
tem being  aroused  and  the  fever  germs  thereby 
rendered  innocuous  by  the  coffee.  It  is  also  almost  a 
specific  for  the  disease  after  being  contracted  when  used 
with  lemon  juice,  and  is  found  to  be  of  sovereign 
efficacy  in  tiding  over  any  attacks  of  the  nervous 
system  in  a  number  of  emergencies  from  whatever  cause ; 
and  in  answer  to  the  query  so  often  put,  ''  Does  coffee 
facilitate  or  retard  digestion  ?"  it  may  be  observed  that  it 
contains  several  active  principles,  each  of  which  exercises 
a  specific  influence  on  the  human  system,  the  first  and 
most  important  of  these  being  the  caffeine,  which  raises 
the  activity  of  the  heart,  operating  in  small  doses  as  a 
wholesome  stimulus.  The  second,  the  caffeone  or  vola- 
tile substance,  which  operates  chiefly  on  the  nerves  and 
acting  in  moderate  quantities  as  an  agreeable  exhilarant, 
but  to  which  is  also  attributable  the  fantasies  and  intoxi- 
cant effects  so  frequently  experienced  as  a  result  of  exces- 
sive coffee  drinking.  The  third  being  the  caffeic  or 
tannin,  to  which  coffee  owes  its  bitter  taste  when  boiled 
or  over-infused  and  which,  as  is  well  known,  enters  into 
combination  with  the  albumen,  thereby  materially  preju- 
dicing its  digestibility.  These  three  principal  properties 
vary  greatly  in  the  quantities  extracted  according  to  the 
methods  of  preparation,  so  much  so  that  if  the  coffee  be 
simply  infused  in  water  at  the  boiling  point  and  allowed 
to  cool  rapidly  we  get  but  little  of  the  caffeine  in  the 
extract,  a  good  deal  of  the  aromatic  principle  and 
scarcely  a  trace  of  the  tannin,  but  by  over-boiling 
and  prolonged  infusion  the  aroma  is  dissipated  by 
passing  off  with  the  steam   or  vapor  arising  from  it 


MEDICINAL  EFFECTS.  26 1 

in  the  process  of  preparation,  more  caffeine  being 
also  extracted,  and  the  longer  it  is  infused  or  boiled  the 
more  tannin  is  dissolved  in  the  liquid.  These  facts  serve 
to  confirm  the  views  generally  expressed  by  physicians, 
that  coffee  boiled  or  over-infused  prejudices  its  digesti- 
bility, while  simple  infusions  facilitate  it,  but  its  bene- 
ficial action  in  the  latter  case  is  now  proved  to  be  due 
not  to  any  direct  chemical  action  on  the  albumen  present, 
but  indirectly  to  its  action  on  the  nerve-centres  of  the 
stomach  by  promoting  the  secretion  of  the  gastric  juices, 
such  action  being,  in  other  words,  physiological  and  not 
chemical,  as  heretofore  supposed. 

With  regard  to  the  anti-bilious  properties  of  coffee  Dr. 
Elliott  states  that  "  We  speedily  found  that  patients  in 
hospitals  and  all  persons  leading  sedentary  lives  must 
avoid  too  concentrated  food  and  drink  abundantly  of 
diluent  fluids,  that  coffee  acted  on  the  liver  and  was 
altogether  the  best  remedy  for  constipation  and  what  is 
commonly  termed  a  bilious  condition,  that  tea  acted  in  a 
precisely  opposite  direction,  and  that  not  poppies,  man- 
dragora  nor  all  the  drowsy  syrups  of  the  East  could 
bring  the  peace  to  a  sufferer  from  malarial  chill  that 
would  come  of  strong  coffee,  with  a  little  lemon  juice 
added,  and  that  strong  tea  was  almost  a  specific  for 
neuralgia  in  its  simplest  and  most  uncomplicated  form." 
Liebig  also  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  coffee  con- 
tains many  of  the  elements  which  stimulate  the  flow  of 
bile,  being  a  decided  laxative,  as  well  as  a  pronounced 
diuretic,  which  is  confirmed  by  the  fact  that  the  "  coffee 
belt  "  of  the  world  is  also  the  "  bilious  belt "  and  the 
**  malarial  belt,"  as  well  as  the  regions  where  noxious 
germs  and  suppurative  processes  most  abound.  Ample 
evidence  of  **the  fitness  of  things"  in  nature,  no  people 
understanding  better  than  the  inhabitants  of  these  tropical 


262  MEDICINAL  EFFECTS. 

countries  the  value  of  coffee  to  open  the  secretions  which 
have  been  checked  by  the  heat  or  miasmatic  influences  of 
such  climates.  Knowing  this,  they  take  full  advantage 
of  the  well-known  antiseptic  properties  of  coffee. 

It  is  now  more  than  thirty  years  since  Landarabilco 
called  attention  to  the  great  value  of  raw  or  unroasted 
coffee  in  hepatic  and  nephritic  diseases ;  who,  after  having 
continued  to  use  the  remedy  for  over  a  third  of  a  century 
in  many  hundreds  of  almost  hopeless  cases,  still  continues 
to  use  it  with  marked  success  in  the  treatment  of  liver 
and  kidney  troubles  which  have  persistently  resisted  all 
other  treatment.  For  such  cases,  3  drams  {}(  oz.)  of 
raw  coffee  beans  are  placed  in  a  tumbler  of  cold  water — 
the  best  results  being  obtained  from  a  combination  of 
Mocha,  Bourbon  and  Martinique  coffees  in  equal  parts 
of  I  dram  each.  The  infusion  is  allowed  to  stand  over 
night,  and  after  being  properly  strained  or  filtered  must 
be  taken  on  an  empty  stomach  the  first  thing  on  rising 
in  the  morning.  This  simple  remedy  has  been  found  a 
sovereign  remedy  in  numerous  cases  of  renal  and  hepatic 
colics,  as  well  as  in  diabetes  and  migraime  or  nervous 
headache,  which,  while  rebellious  to  all  other  treatment 
for  years,  readily  yielded  to  the  raw  coffee  infusion.  It 
may  be  here  remarked  that  Bourbon  and  Martinique 
coffees  cannot  be  had  in  this  country,  going  exclusively 
to  France,  but  may  be  substituted  by  what  is  known 
in  trade  as  Bourbon  or  Mocha-seed,  Santos,  Jamaica  and 
Mocha  or  almost  any  other  fine  mild  coffee. 

Coffee,  like  tea,  acts  powerfully  on  the  respiratory 
organs,  but  increases  the  rate  of  respiration  more  than 
tea  and  also  the  pulsation  ;  while  tea,  on  the  other  hand, 
increases  the  action  of  the  skin,  and,  by  lessening  the 
force  of  the  circulation,  cools  the  body,  and  does  not 
cause   congestion   of  any  of  the   mucous  membranes, 


MEDICINAL   EFFECTS.  263 

particularly  that  of  the  bowels.  But  coffee,  by  diminishing 
the  action  of  the  skin,  lessens  also  the  heat  of  the  body, 
but  increases  the  vis-a-tergo,  and  therefore  the  heart's 
action  and  fulness  of  pulse,  thus  exciting  the  mucous 
membranes.  The  conditions,  therefore,  under  which 
coffee  may  be  used  are  different  from  those  suited  to  the 
use  of  tea,  and  under  these  circumstances  better  adapted 
for  use  among  the  poor  and  feeble  as  a  dietecal  beverage. 
But,  besides  accelerating  the  action  of  the  bowels,  and, 
according  to  Liebig,  aiding  in  the  secretion  of  the  bile, 
it  also  invigorates  to  a  very  high  degree  the  ganglionic 
system  of  the  brain,  soothing  the  painful  feeling  of 
fatigue  and  exhaustion,  stimulating  to  renewed  mental 
exertion,  for  which  reasons  it  always  has  been  highly 
appreciated  by  students  and  literary  people  generally. 
The  exhilarating  and  stimulating  effect  which  coffee 
has  on  the  human  organization  is  due  chiefly  to  the 
characteristic  principles  which  it  contains.  It  excites 
the  heart's  action,  and,  as  that  organ  is  feeble  in  the 
morning  and  the  skin  is  active,  it  is  best  adapted  for  use 
at  the  morning  meal,  its  action  upon  the  nervous  system 
being  less  exciting  than  that  of  tea.  Very  strong  coffee, 
however,  produces  sleeplessness  in  many  persons  when 
taken  at  night,  owing  to  its  effects  on  the  heart's  action, 
by  retarding  that  full  action  of  this  organ,  which  is 
natural  at  night,  and  so  requisite  to  permit  sound  sleep, 
while  if  only  a  light  infusion  be  prepared  and  taken  at 
night,  these  effects  are  not  likely  to  be  experienced. 

In  typhoid  and  other  fevers  its  action  is  frequently 
very  prompt  and  efficacious,  particularly  in  the  early 
stages  before  local  complications  set  in.  Dr.  Guillasse, 
of  the  French  navy,  in  a  recent  paper  on  typhoid 
fever,  states  that  '*  Coffee  has  given  us  unhoped- 
for satisfaction,  for,  after  having  dispensed  it,  we  found, 


264  MEDICINAL  EFFECTS. 


to  our  great  surprise,  that  its  action  was  as  prompt 
as  it  was  decisive.  No  sooner  had  our  patients  taken  a 
few  tablespoonfuls  of  it  than  their  features  became 
relaxed,  and  came  immediately  to  their  senses,  while  the 
next  day  the  improvement  was  such  that  we  are  tempted 
to  look  upon  it  as  a  specific  against  typhoid  fever.  Under 
its  influence  the  stupor  is  dispelled  and  the  patient  arises 
from  the  state  of  somnolency  in  which  he  has  lain  since 
the  invasion  of  the  disease  ;  soon  all  the  functions  take 
their  natural  course,  and  he  enters  on  convalescence." 
His  formula  is  to  give  to  an  adult  two  to  three  table- 
spoonfuls  of  strong,  black  coffee  every  two  hours,  alter- 
nately with  one  to  two  tablespoonfuls  of  claret  or  bur- 
gundy wine,  a  little  lemonade  or  citrate  of  magnesia,  to  be 
taken  daily,  and  after  a  few  days  quinine  in  small  doses. 
From  the  fact  that  malaise  or  cerebral  symptoms  appear 
first,  the  doctor  regards  typhoid  as  a  nervous  disease, 
and  the  coffee,  acting  on  the  nerves,  is  peculiarly  indi- 
cated in  the  early  stages,  before  local  complications  arise. 
While  in  extreme  cases  of  yellow  fever  it  has  been 
used  effectively  by  many  doctors  as  the  main  reliance 
after  all  the  other  well-known  remedies  had  been  admin- 
istered and  failed.  In  such  cases  it  acts  by  retarding  the 
tissue  change,  that  becoming  a  conservator  of  force, 
especially  in  that  state  in  which  the  nervous  system  tends 
to  collapse,  owing  to  the  blood  becoming  impure.  In 
such  a  condition  it  sustains  the  nervous  power  until  the 
depuration  and  reorganization  of  the  blood  are  accom- 
plished, possessing  the  advantage  over  all  other  stimu- 
lants of  inducing  to  no  secondary  ill-eflects. 

As  early  as  1835,  during  the  cholera  epidemic,  the 
physicians  of  New  York  issued  a  public  manifesto  urging 
the  people  to  abstain  from  beer  and  other  liquors  and 
confine  themselves  to  the  exclusive  use  of  pure,  strong 


MEDICINAL   EFFECTS.  265 

coffee  as  a  beverage,  in  order  to  keep  the  system  healthy 
and  render  it  less  liable  to  an  attack  of  the  disease,  with 
the  most  beneficial  and  gratifying  results.  That  they 
**  builded  better  than  they  knew  "  has  since  been  conclu- 
sively proven  by  Sudentz,  who  in  detailing  a  series  of 
experiments  in  which  he  has  determined  the  powerful 
influence  of  coffee  infusions  of  varying  strength  upon  the 
growth  of  the  different  forms  of  pathogenic  and  non- 
pathogenic micro-organisms.  The  variety  of  coffee  used 
in  these  experiments  was  the  finest  Java — although  good 
and  bad  coffee  was  afterwards  found  to  effect  precisely 
similar  results — the  infusions  being  made  by  adding  from 
10  to  30  parts  of  coffee  to  from  70  to  90  parts  of  boiling 
water.  The  coffee  was  first  freshly  roasted,  ground  fine 
and  then  covered  with  the  boiling  water,  the  infusion 
thus  prepared  being  placed  in  a  closed  flask,  put  in  a 
hot  water  bath  for  about  ten  minutes  and  next  filtered 
through  a  sterilized  filter.  The  infusion  thus  produced 
is  used  in  the  making  of  a  gelatinous  compound,  both 
directly  and  in  part,  until  a  nutrient  gelatine  was  prepared 
from  it.  With  this  as  a  "  menstruum  "  the  various  forms 
oi  fungi  and  other  forms  of  micro-organisms  were  inoc- 
ulated with  the  object  of  determining  the  possibility  of 
their  growth  or  propagation  in  such  a  medium,  but  in 
other  cases  the  organisms  were  added  directly  to  the 
coffee  alone  in  infusions  of  varying  strength  and  after  dif- 
ferent periods  of  time  inoculations  were  made  from  these 
infusions  into  other  nutrient  media.  By  this  method  he 
found  that  the  forms  o^  fungi  experimented  with  showed 
more  or  less  growth  in  the  coffee  gelatine  and  that  the 
abundance  of  the  growth  was  in  many  cases  distinctly 
less  than  in  the  former  media.  The  other  organisms 
which  he  used  for  his  experiments  were  the  phyogenes 
aureus,  prodigiosus,  erisipelous,  the  germ  of  anthrax  or 


266  MEDICINAL   EFFECTS. 


splenic  fever,  the  bacilli  of  typhoid  fever  and  the  spirulum 
of  Asiatic  cholera,  all  of  which  and  many  other  forms  of 
micro-organisms  were  greatly  influenced  in  their  life  and 
growth  by  exposure  to  the  coffee  infusions,  some  being 
far  more  susceptible  than  others,  however,  the  bacillus 
prodigiosus  and  proieus  vulgaris  being  entirely  destroyed 
only  after  an  exposure  of  four  days  in  a  lO  per  cent, 
infusion,  while  in  a  30  per  cent,  infusion  they  were  all 
destroyed  in  one  day.  The  spore  of  erysipelas  was  totally 
destroyed  after  an  exposure  of  one  day  in  a  10  per  cent, 
infusion,  the  germ  of  splenic  fever  dying  in  from  one  to 
three  hours  in  a  20  to  30  per  cent,  infusion ;  while  the 
typhoid  bacilli v^^x^  completely  destroyed  in  a  5  percent, 
infusion  after  an  exposure  of  three  days  and  in  a  30  per 
cent,  infusion  in  from  one  to  two  days.  While  the  microbe 
of  Asiatic  cholera  was  easily  destroyed  in  a  i  per  cent, 
infusion  after  only  seven  hours'  exposure ^  in  a  5  per  cent, 
infusion  after  four  hours  and  in  a  jo  per  cent,  infusion 
after  two  hours;  the  cholera  spirulum  being  by  far 
the  most  susceptible  of  the  numerous  organisms  used 
in  the  experiments,  next  to  which  was  the  anthrax 
bacilli,  except  the  young  forms  or  spores  of  the  latter 
germs,  which  perish  only  in  from  three  to  four  weeks' 
exposure.  These  latter  results  speak  volumes  for 
"  coffee  as  a  germicide "  for  anthrax  or  splenic  fever, 
as  the  spores  of  this  disease  are  by  no  means  easy  to 
scotch  or  kill,  and  after  these  revelations  coffee  adminis- 
tered internally  or  hypodermically  in  some  new  form  or 
combination  of  forms,  may  be  eventually  used  as  a  remedy 
for  all  germ-produced  diseases.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind 
by  the  student  or  chemist,  however,  that  the  antiseptic 
effects  of  coffee  do  not  depend  on  its  Caffeine  so  much  as 
on  its  Caffeone  or  essential  oil  developed  in  the  roasting 
of  the  beans.     But  aside  from  these  experiments,  others 


MEDICINAL   EFFECTS.  267 

were  also  made  with  decomposing  meat  soups,  which  were 
actually  swarming  with  various  forms  of  micro-organ- 
isms, the  results  obtained  showing  that  the  vitality  of  the 
spores  contained  in  the  fluid  was  greatly  diminished  after 
a  short  exposure,  but  was  not  completely  destroyed  until 
after  an  exposure  of  many  days. 

It  may  at  first  sight  seem  irrational  that  a  substance 
which  restricts  tissue-waste  should  be  used  for  the  pur- 
pose of  quickening  certain  other  functions,  more  espe- 
cially those  of  the  brain,  yet  the  physical  activity,  mental 
exhilaration  and  wakefulness  it  causes  explains  the  liking 
for  it  shown  by  so  many  men  of  science,  poets,  scholars 
and  others  devoted  to  thinking.  But  all  of  these 
occupations  involve  increased  waste  of  tissue  in  the 
brain  as  well  as  of  the  spinal  marrow,  the  very 
action  which  coffee  is  said  to  restrain,  sO'  much  so 
that  to  reconcile  these  apparent  incongruities,  it  has  been 
maintained  that  coffee  does  not  act  primarily  as  a  cere- 
bral stimulant,  but  only  secondarily  by  removing  the 
vascular  plenitude  occasioned  by  prolonged  study,  by 
a  full  meal,  and  especially  by  opium,  alcohol,  or  other 
agents  which  directly  tend  to  load  the  brain  with  blood, 
so  that  when  taken  on  an  empty  stomach  it  does  not 
quicken  the  functions  of  the  brain,  but  on  the  contrary 
renders  it  dull  and  inapt  for  steady  thought,  creating 
nervousness  and  general  debility  and  frequently  causing 
hemicrania. 

During  digestion,  however,  the  case  is  different,  par- 
ticularly if  a  full  and  stimulating  meal  has  been  taken, 
the  mind  grows  dull  and  sluggish,  a  tendency  to  sleep 
arises,  and  everything  indicates  an  increased  amount  of 
blood  on  the  brain,  it  being  in  like  manner  that  prolonged 
mental  labor  produces  cerebral  plenitude  and  drowsiness. 
It  is  this   condition  apparently  which   coffee  corrects 


268  MEDICINAL  EFFECTS. 

by  contracting  the  blood-vessels  and  thereby  relieving 
the  brain  of  its  oppressive  load  of  blood.  The  habit  of 
using  coffee  at  breakfast  and  after  dinner  is  thus  explained 
by  the  stimulant  action  which  it  exerts,  not  only  upon 
the  nervous  system  generally,  but  more  especially  on  the 
stomach  and  bowels,  there  being  no  doubt  that  it  quickens 
gastric  digestion  and  relieves  the  sense  of  plenitude  in 
the  stomach,  stimulating  the  secretion  of  bile  and  aug- 
menting the  peristaltic  action  of  the  intestine,  and  there- 
by promoting  defacation.  While  it  is  quite  as  certain 
that,  used  to  excess,  it  paralyzes  the  digestive  function  in 
all  its  stages  and  leads  to  further  disorders,  of  which  the 
chief  are  constipation,  hemorrhoids  and  congestion  of 
the  liver,  but  whether  these  effects  are  to  be  ascribed  to 
a  power  in  coffee  to  produce  contraction  of  the  capillary 
blood-vessels  or  not  is  uncertain,  but  their  reality  is 
beyond  dispute. 

With  regard  to  the  injurious  effects  charged  to  the 
abuse  of  coffee  by  some  authorities,  it  may  be  said  that 
the  consequences  of  an  abuse  of  tea  were  declared  to  be 
similar  to  that  of  coffee  long  before  chemistry  had 
demonstrated  the  identity  of  theine  with  caffeine^  when 
among  their  evil  effects  were  enumerated  acidity,  heartburn, 
indigestion,  tremors,  wakefulness,  irritability  of  disposition 
and  depression  of  spirits.  Most  of  these  ill-effects 
are  more  likely  to  follow  the  abuse  of  tea  than  coffee,  if 
at  all,  and  the  spinal  symptoms,  such  as  painful  muscular 
tension,  cramp  and  persistent  wakefulness,  are  also  more 
apt  to  be  produced  by  tea.  In  experiments  made  with  a 
number  of  selected  healthy  persons,  the  operation  of 
caffeine  has  been  found  to  vary  exceedingly,  some  being 
scarcely  affected  at  all,  while  others  by  the  same  dose 
suffered  from  a  full,  frequent  or  irregular  pulse,  headache, 
trembling  limbs,  palpitation  of  the  heart,  flashes  before 


MEDICINAL   EFFECTS.  269 


the  eyes,  roaring  in  the  ears,  sleeplessness,  phantasms,  a 
sort  of  intoxication,  and  a  subsequent  unfitness  for  all 
physical  and  mental  labor  when  very  large  doses  were 
taken.  These  effects  illustrate  the  danger  of  exceeding 
due  moderation  in  the  use  of  coffee,  showing  that  it  may, 
if  abused,  tend  to  develop  a  morbid  condition  of  the  ner- 
vous system,  rendering  it  peculiarly  liable  to  disease, 
although  in  a  much  less  degree  than  either  opium  or 
alcohol,  its  excessive  use  being  much  more  injurious  to 
the  spinal  than  to  the  cerebral  functions. 

From  these  facts  it  may  be  advanced  by  some  authori- 
ties that  an  article  possessing  such  great  powers  and 
capacity  for  such  energetic  action  must  be  injurious  by 
habitual  employment  as  an  article  of  diet,  or  at  least  not 
without  some  injurious  or  deleterious  properties.  But 
no  corresponding  ill-results  or  nervous  derangements 
are  ever  observed  after  its  effects  have  disappeared  as  are 
noticed  in  other  narcotics  and  stimulants,  the  action  im- 
parted to  the  nervous  system  by  coffee  being  natural  and 
healthy  in  the  extreme,  in  proof  of  which  it  has  been 
shown  that  habitual  coffee-drinkers  generally  enjoy 
good  health  and  spirits,  some  of  the  longest-lived 
people  having  used  coffee  continually  from  their  earliest 
infancy  without  experiencing  any  inconvenience,  depres- 
sing reaction,  or  other  ill-effects  such  as  is  invariably 
produced  by  the  use  of  alcoholic  stimulants.  There 
are,  on  the  other  hand,  systems  with  which  it  does  not 
agree,  as,  being  a  stimulant,  it  may  be  taken  too  freely; 
in  such  cases  it  undoubtedly  produces  irregularities 
in  the  action  of  the  heart  and  nervous  system.  But 
generally  it  is  an  unmixed  blessing,  its  beneficial  influence 
becoming  more  apparent  as  its  use  penetrates  into  the 
lower  strata  of  society,  taking  the  place  of  the  various 
debasing  alcoholic  beverages. 


27©  DIETETICAL   PROPERTIES. 

In  addition  to  its  many  other  virtues,  coffee  has  been 
found  to  be  an  excellent  barometer,  from  the  fact  of  its 
being  such  a  great  absorbent.  On  the  eve  of  a  rain- 
storm grinding  coffee  will  be  found,  difficult,  the  bean 
becoming  damp  and  tough,  while  when  dry  weather  is 
indicated  the  process  is  quite  easy.  Another  method  of 
predicting  the  weather  by  it  is  to  drop  a  lump  of  sugar 
into  a  cup  of  coffee  without  stirring.  In  a  very  short 
time  the  air  contained  in  the  sugar  will  rise  to  the  surface 
in  the  shape  of  bubbles.  If  the  bubbles  collect  in  the 
middle  of  the  cup  a  fair  day  will  be  sure  to  follow,  but  if 
they  should  adhere  to  the  side  of  the  cup,  forming  a 
ring  of  bubbles  with  a  clear  space  in  the  centre,  rain  is 
certain  to  be  near  at  hand,  while  if  the  bubbles  be  neither 
of  these,  but  scatter  irregularly  over  the  surface  of 
the  liquid,  variable  weather  is  indicated  by  the  move- 
ment. What  the  scientific  explanation  of  the  action  of 
the  atmosphere  on  the  bubbles  so  found  is  not  known, 
but  that  their  indications  curiously  and  correctly 
agree  with  those  of  a  barometer  has  been  tested  and 
proved. 

The  human  family  have,  from  time  immemorial,  been 
addicted  to  the  use  of  warm  food  and  Hquids  in  some 
form,  infusions  or  decoctions  of  sage  and  the  leaves  of 
other  plants  being  used  extensively  in  Europe  for  the 
purpose  prior  to  the  introduction  of  tea  and  coffee. 
The  human  body  demands  food  or  liquid  when  in  an 
exhausted  state,  and  if  they  be  not  warm  they  make  an 
immediate  drain  on  the  system  for  heat  before  it  can  sup- 
ply material  for  combustion,  so  that  the  body  is  taxed  for 
heat  at  a  time  when  it  is  least  fitted  for  the  purpose.     It 


DIETETICAL   PROPERTIES.  271 

is  but  natural  therefore  that  there  should  be  a  craving 
for  warm  food  and  drink,  and  as  liquid  food,  partic- 
ularly in  a  cold  state,  is  deficient  in  heat-giving  matter, 
the  use  of  cold  liquids  is  more  injurious  than  that  of 
cold  solids.  The  temperature  of  the  human  body  being 
98°,  when  food  is  taken  into  the  stomach  at  a  lower 
temperature  than  that  of  the  body,  it  obstructs  the  heat 
from  the  stomach  and  surrounding  tissues,  so  that  when 
the  practice  of  taking  cold  food  into  the  body  becomes 
habitual,  depression  occurs  and  the  stomach  is  disordered. 
The  system  must  therefore  make  good  the  heat  lost  in 
raising  the  temperature  of  the  cold  food — hquid  or  soHd 
— or  else  suffer  the  consequences. 

The  action  of  coffee  as  a  diet  is  directed  chiefly  to  the 
nervous  system,  producing  a  warming  cordial  impression 
on  the  stomach,  which  is  quickly  followed  by  a  diffused 
and  agreeable  nervous  excitement  which  extends  itself 
to  the  cerebral  function,  giving  rise  to  increased  vigor  of 
the  imagination  and  intellect,  this  too  without  any  subse- 
quent reaction  or  stupor  such  as  are  characteristic  of  liquor 
and  other  narcotics.  It  contains  essential  principles  of 
nutrition  far  exceeding  in  importance  its  exhilarating 
properties,  and  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  articles  of  food 
for  sustaining  the  system  in  certain  protracted  and  wasting 
diseases,  and  as  compared  even  with  the  best  soups,  coffee 
has  a  decided  advantage  and  is  to  be  preferred  to  them  in 
many  cases.  But  to  rightly  understand  its  function  as  a  food 
it  should  be  used  chiefly  as  an  accessary  to  food,  as  it  aids 
in  the  digestion  and  assimilation  of  the  other  foods 
when  it  is  properly  prepared — that  is,  by  protracted 
infusion — as  when  boiled  too  long  the  caffeic  acid  or 
tannin  is  extracted.  The  action  of  this  acid  in 
combination  with  the  milk  and  cream  being  to  harden 
the  albumen  into  an  indigestible  compound,  which  has 


272  DIETETICAL  PROPERTIES. 

been  found  exceedingly  irritating  to  the  delicate  mem- 
branes of  the  digestive  organs  and  nervous  system. 
Milk  and  coffee  act  similarly  upon  the  skin  and  other 
organs,  its  use  with  coffee  making  it  a  more  perfect  food 
than  when  milk  is  used  with  tea.  But  while,  like  tea,  it 
increases  the  respiration,  yet  again,  unlike  it,  its  effects 
are  not  lasting,  as  by  the  use  of  coffee  the  rate  of  the 
pulse  is  increased,  and  the  action  of  the  skin's  pores 
diminished,  thereby  lessening  the  quantity  of  the  blood 
circulating  in  the  organs  of  the  body,  it  distends  the  veins, 
but  contracts  the  capillaries,  thus  preventing  a  waste. 
According  to  Professor  Johnstone,  "  Coffee  arouses,  ex- 
hilarates and  keeps  awake,  counteracts  the  stupor  oc- 
casioned by  fatigue,  disease  or  opium,  allays  hunger  to  a 
certain  extent,  gives  to  the  wearied  increased  strength 
and  vigor,  and  imparts  a  feeling  of  comfort  and  repose. 
Its  physiological  effects  upon  the  human  system  appear 
to  be,  that  while  it  makes  the  brain  more  active,  it 
soothes  the  body  generally,  retards  the  change  and  waste 
of  tissue,  making  the  demand  for  food  consequently  less. 
The  GalljE,  a  wandering  nation  of  Africa,  during  their 
incursions,  are  obliged  to  travel  over  immense  deserts, 
and  being  also  desirous  of  falling  upon  the  towns  and 
villages  of  their  victims  without  warning,  carry  nothing 
to  eat  with  them  but  the  roasted  and  pulverized  beans  of 
coffee,  which  they  mix  with  grease  to  a  certain  consist- 
ency, that  will  permit  of  its  being  rolled  into  masses  about 
the  size  of  billiard-balls,  which  they  keep  in  leather- 
bags  until  required  for  use.  One  of  these  balls  so  pre- 
pared supports  them  for  an  entire  day  when  on  a  marauding 
excursion  or  in  active  war  better  than  a  loaf  of  bread  or 
a  meal  of  meat,  claiming  that  they  prefer  it  to  grain  or 
meat  because  it  cheered  their  spirits  as  well  as  fed  them. 
Eaten  in  this  manner,  coffee  undoubtedly  affords  much 


DIETETICAL  PROPERTIES.  273 

nourishment,  as,  according  to  Payen,  it  contains  more 
than  twice  the  nutriment  of  soup  and  three  tinies  as 
much  as  tea.  In  the  liquid  state,  however,  the  nitroge- 
neous  or  flesh-forming  properties,  being  mostly  insoluble, 
they  remain  in  the  grounds.  For  this  reason  coffees 
lightly  roasted  possesses  the  maximum  of  nutrition, 
strength  and  aroma. 

The  Belgian  coal  miners  live  and  work  effectively  on  a 
ration  of  solid  food  less  than  the  French  miners,  yet  per- 
form more  labor  than  the  latter,  the  only  difference  in  their 
food  consisting  in  the  Belgians  receiving  a  ration  of  coffee 
insteadof  wine,  to  which  is  attributed  their  greater  endur- 
ance. While  Jomand  states  that  eight  pints  of  an  infusion 
made  with  six  ounces  of  different  kinds  of  coffee 
enabled  him  to  live  for  five  consecutive  days  without 
lessening  his  ordinary  occupations,  as  well  as  to  use 
more  and  prolonged  muscular  exercise  than  he  was 
accustomed  to  without  any  other  physical  injury  than 
a  slight  degree  of  fatigue  and  a  little  loss  of  flesh. 
The  value  of  hot  infusions  of  coffee  under  the  rigors 
of  an  Arctic  cold  has  been  demonstrated  by  the 
experience  of  all  polar  explorers,  and  it  has  been 
found  scarcely  less  useful  in  tropical  regions,  where 
it  beneficially  stimulates  the  action  of  the  skin.  Cap- 
tain Parry  states  that  when  on  his  Arctic  expedition  he 
placed  his  starboard  watch  on  a  diet  of  coffee  and  the 
port  watch  on  that  of  rum,  as  an  experiment,  with  the 
result  that  the  coffee  watch  was  found  to  possess  a  vigor  of 
health  and  activity  entirely  wanting  in  that  of  the  other. 
And  many  of  our  own  troops  during  the  late  war 
declared  that  they  could  march  longer  and  endure  more 
hardship  and  exposure  under  the  stimulus  of  a  cup  of 
warm  coffee — and  they  got  far  from  the  best  or  purest— 
than  they  could  under  an  equal  quantity  of  liquor. 


274  DIETETICAL  PROPERTIES. 

But  there  is  still  another  effect  of  coffee — that  of 
checking  the  too  rapid  consumption  of  nitrogeneous 
matter  in  the  system — which,  while  not  nutritious 
in  itself,  yet  possesses  an  indirect  nutritive  value;  this 
result,  added  to  its  stimulating  character,  have  made 
it  the  chosen  beverage  for  breakfast,  and  therefore 
the  best  staple  supply  for  both  our  army  and  navy. 
By  taking  a  cup  of  strong,  black  coffee,  without  milk 
or  sugar,  between  two  glasses  of  hot  water  before  rising 
in  the  morning  and  at  least  an  hour  before  breakfast,  the 
various  secretions  are  stimulated  and  the  nervous  force 
aroused,  so  that  an  hour  later  a  hearty  meal  is  enjoyed  and 
the  day's  labor  b'^gun  favorably,  no  matter  how  the  duties 
of  the  day  and  night  preceding  may  have  drawn  upon  the 
system.  While  another  cup' at  four  in  the  afternoon  is 
sufficient  to  sustain  the  flagging  energies  for  many  hours 
thereafter.  In  this  manner  its  full  effect  is  best  secured, 
but  if  along  with  this  the  proper  diet  is  taken  at  the 
proper  time,  the  capacity  for  work  will  be  almost  unlimited. 
Its  physiological  effects  upon  the  human  system,  so  far 
as  they  have  been  investigated,  appear  to  be  that  while 
it  makes  the  brain  more  active  it  soothes  the  body  gen- 
erally, making  the  waste  and  loss  of  tissue  slower  and 
the  demand  for  food  less.  It  is  a  mental  stimulus  of  a 
high  order,  and  therefore  is  as  a  beverage  liable  to  be 
abused  for  that  reason.  Through  its  influence  the  stu- 
dent burns  the  midnight  oil  to  excess,  and  consequently 
reduces  his  store  of  physical  force. 

The  German  naturalist  Martin  relates  a  case  he  met 
with  of  a  horse  which  owed  its  Hfe  to  the  use  of  coffee 
after  being  in  a  condition  considered  as  incurable.  The 
animal  was  reduced  to  a  mere  skeleton  and  so  weak  that 
it  could  scarcely  walk,  when  infusions  of  coffee  were  first 
given  it  as  an  experiment,  and  then  some  ground  coffee 


MORAL    INFLUENCE.  275 

mixed  with  honey.  In  a  short  time  the  animal  began  to 
improve  rapidly,  eventually  becoming  better  than  ever. 
The  same  treatment  was  afterwards  tried  with  like  suc- 
cess in  many  similar  cases  where  the  horses  had  been 
over-worked  or  lost  their  strength  and  appetite. 

It  has  been  affirmed  that  coffee  and  other  substances 
containing  the  alkaloid  Caffeine  have  a  direct  influence 
in  retarding  the  waste  of  tissue  matter  in  the  human 
frame,  a  single  cup  of  the  liquid  prepared  from  a  quarter 
ounce  of  coffee,  containing  from  1.5  to  1.9  grains  of 
Caffeine  in  the  infused  state.  The  moderation  of  tissue 
waste  attributed  to  coffee  in  common  with  other  articles 
having  the  same  general  action  and  in  use  among 
different  nations,  is  proven  by  various  well-established 
facts.  In  its  primary  operation  it  agrees  with  those 
stimulants  in  exciting  mental  and  muscular  activity  as 
well  as  cheerfulness,  while  in  its  after  effects  it  does  not 
tend  to  produce  narcotism  or  stupor,  only  that  unsteadi- 
ness of  mind  and  of  the  spinal  functions  which  denotes 
exhaustion. 

It  has  been  the  custom  at  frequently-recurring  periods 
for  moralists  and  scientists  to  claim  that  coffee  is  injuri- 
ous to  the  health  of  its  votaries,  and  many  coffee  drink- 
ers believing  such  statements  give  up  its  use  regretfully. 
That  its  use  or  rather  its  abuse  may  be  injurious  in  some 
instances  cannot  be  denied,  but  of  all  beverages  now  in 
use  the  facts  and  effects  prove  it  to  be  the  least  injurious 
of  any  and  all  when  not  indulged  in  immoderately. 
Taken  in  moderation  it  is  both  a  mental  and  physical 
stimulant  of  the  most  agreeable  and  pleasant  nature, 
being  followed  by  no  harmful  reaction.  It  produces  con- 
tentment of  mind,  allays  hunger  and  bodily  weakness, 


276  ^  MORAL    INFLUENCE. 


increases  the  incentive  and  capacity  for  work,  enabling 
those  who  use  it  in  bounds  to  remain  long  without  food 
or  sleep,  endure  unusual  fatigue,  and  preserve  their  cheer- 
fulness and  composure,  coffee-drinkers  as  a  rule  being 
generally  cheerful,  active  and  persevering.  The  truth 
is  that  coffee,  if  of  a  pure  kind  and  properly  prepared, 
is  about  the  pleasantest  and  most  innocuous  stimu- 
lant that  can  be  resorted  to,  particularly  after  a  long 
worry  or  severe  drain  on  the  emotional  or  intellectual 
forces.  So  that  if  it  could  be  but  made  to  take  the  place 
of  absinthe,  champagne  and  other  such  beverages  the 
coming  race  would  be  all  the  better  intellectually  and 
physically  for  it.  Habitual  coffee-drinkers  generally 
enjoy  good  health,  some  of  the  longest-lived  people 
have  used  it  from  their  earliest  infancy  without  apparent 
injury  or  depressing  reaction,  such  as  is  invariably 
produced  by  alcoholic  stimulants.  The  physiological 
action  of  coffee  is  directed  chiefly  to  the  nervous 
system,  producing  a  warm,  cordial  feeling  in  the 
stomach,  which  is  quickly  followed  by  a  well-diffused 
and  agreeable  nervous  excitement  extending  itself  to  the 
cerebral  functions,  giving  rise  to  increased  vigor  to  the 
imagination  and  intellect  without  causing  any  subsequent 
stupor  or  confusion  of  ideas,  such  as  are  so  characteristic 
of  all  other  narcotics.  It  produces  contentment  of  mind, 
allays  hunger,  mental  and  bodily  weariness,  increases  the 
capacity  for  work,  makes  man  forget  his  troubles  and 
anxieties,  enabling  those  who  use  it  judiciously  to  endure 
unusual  fatigue  and  remain  a  long  time  without  food  or 
sleep,  as  well  as  to  preserve  their  temper  and  cheerful- 
ness. 

The  influence  which  the  introduction  of  coffee  has 
exercised  on  modern  morals  is  on  account  of  its  peculiar 
character,  much  easier  to  understand  than  to  prove.  We 


MORAL    INFLUENCE.  277 

know  that  the  discovery  of  gunpowder  changed  the  entire 
art  of  war  from  the  equipment  of  the  individual  soldier  to  the 
alignment  of  an  entire  army,  and  thus  its  influence  became 
a  palpable  fact.  But  the  changes  in  modern  life  effected 
by  the  introduction  of  coffee  belong  to  the  general  and 
concealed  springs  of  life ;  to  its  motives,  rather  than  to 
any  circumscribed  set  of  utterances  regarding  its  facts, 
and  an  influence  of  this  nature  requires  the  application 
of  a  pecuhar  instrument  in  order  to  in  a  measure  calculate 
or  even  demonstrate  it.  A  doctor  may  be  perfectly  correct 
in  ascribing  a  fever  to  certain  atmospheric  conditions, 
but  without  thermometer,  barometer  or  microscope,  he 
can  prove  absolutely  nothing.  We  may  be  perfectly 
certain  then  that  the  introduction  of  coffee  has  altered  the 
whole  moral  atmosphere  in  which  we  move,  but  without 
statistics  we  are  unable  to  demonstrate  the  legitimacy  or 
correctness  of  the  assumption,  and  statistics  is  a  scientific 
instrument  of  much  later  date  than  the  introduction  of 
coffee. 

Observations,  however,  which  in  some  degree  may 
be  of  some  service  in  arriving  at  exact  figures,  are 
not  altogether  wanting.  It  cannot  be  contended  that 
life  has  become  more  just  and  honest,  which  would  be 
the  legitimate  result  of  a  better  education,  but  it  is  certain 
that  it  has  become  gentler,  more  uniform  and  pacific, 
two  results  which  essentially  depend  on  food  and  occu- 
pation. Nor  can  it  be  denied  that  it  is  the  increasing 
demands  of  reason  which  awe,  superstition,  bigotry  and 
narrow  fanaticism  out  of  our  educational  system,  and  not 
this  system  which  spontaneously  has  endeavored  to 
make  everything  else  subservient  to  reason,  and  what 
thus  is  dimly  or  vaguely  indicated  by  a  general  view  of 
life,  often  becomes  more  striking  in  many  individual 
instances.     It  is  a  hazardous,  but  nevertheless  felicitous 


278  MORAL    INFLUENCE. 


expression,  that  "if  Queen  Elizabeth  had  breakfasted 
upon  coffee  and  hot  rolls,  instead  of  beer  and  bacon, 
Queen  Mary  would  never  had  been  beheaded."  We  find 
in  bygone  ages  a  perversity  of  temper,  an  impetuosity  of 
will,  a  violence  of  the  passions  which  has  led  some  moral- 
ists to  consider  the  later  generations  of  the  human  race 
as  decreasing  in  vital  force,  while  indeed  the  phenomenon 
might  be  explained  as  the  single  result  of  an  over-stimu- 
lating and  too  exciting  a  diet  and  a  lack  of  temperance. 
Let  the  people  begin  to  indulge  once  again  in  drinking 
wine,  ale  or  other  intoxicating  beverages  at  the  morning 
meal  instead  of  tea  or  coffee,  and  we  will  soon  have  the 
same  amount  of  vital  force  back  again.  It  is  not  the 
power  of  passion  which  has  decreased,  but  the  power 
of  restriction  which  has  increased,  and  a  comprehensive 
consideration  of  historical  facts  seem  to  justify  the  con- 
clusion that  this  increased  power  of  the  reason  is  due  as 
much  to  a  more  proper  feeding  of  the  body  as  to  a  better 
system  of  education. 

The  mental  exhilaration  and  physical  activity  and  buoy- 
ancy which  coffee  causes  explains  the  fondness  which  has 
been  shown  for  it  by  so  many  men  of  science,  poets,  scholars 
and  others  devoted  to  writing  or  thinking  at  all  times, 
and  for  which  reason  it  has  been  styled  the  "  intellectual 
beverage."  Preachers,  orators,  editors  and  lawyers  find- 
ing a  cup  of  good  coffee  the  gentlest,  most  harmless  and 
effective  of  brain-bracers,  but  it  does  not  appear  to  be 
generally  known  that  nearly  all  men  of  literary  habits 
who  exhaust  much  nerve  force  use  it  constantly.  It 
supported  Voltaire  in  his  old  age  and  enabled  Fontenelle 
to  pass  his  hundred  years.  It  was  Voltaire  who  replied, 
on  being  informed  by  his  physician  "that  coffee  was  a  slow 
poison','  " Yes,  I  know  it  is  a  very  slow  poison ;  it  has 
been  poisoning  me  for  over  seventy  years;"  and  Sydney 


MORAL    INFLUENCE.  279 


Smith  who  said,  "  If  you  want  to  improve  your  under- 
standing drink  coffee;  it  is  the  intellectual  beverage." 
Brady  terming  it  "  The  sovereign  drink  of  pleasure  and  of 
health,"  and  Pope  eulogizing  it  in  the  following  lines : — 


From  silver  spouts  the  grateful  liquors  slide 
While  China's  earth  receives  the  smoking  tide, 
At  once  they  gratify  their  sense  and  taste, 
And  frequent  cups  prolong  the  rich  repast ; 

Coffee ! which  makes  the  politician  wise 

And  see  through  all  things  with  half-shut  eyes." 


Howells  paying  his  tribute  to  it  when  he  says,  "  This 
coffee  intoxicates  without  exciting,  soothes  you  softly 
out  of  dull  sobriety,  making  you  think  and  talk  of 
all  the  pleasant  things  that  ever  happened  to  you." 
But  times  have  changed  since  Voltaire^  Diderot,  Pope 
and  others  wrote  and  sang  of  coffee,  jested,  reasoned 
and  made  themselves  immortal  under  its  influence; 
alimentary  and  not  literary  is  the  modern  cafty  though 
some  can  still  boast  of  a  clientele  artistic,  journalistic,  or 
scientific,  the  commercial  element  preponderating,  but  the 
old  historic  cafe^  the  cafe  of  tradition,  where  one  was 
sure  to  find  some  celebrity  on  exhibition — a  poet  or  a 
philosopher — may  be  said  to  be  defunct. 

From  its  cordial  and  gently  stimulating  effects  we 
may  well  join  in  the  enthusiastic  panegyric  pronounced 
on  it  by  an  Arabian  of  old,  of  which  the  following  is 
a  free,  but  condensed,  translation :  **  O,  coffee,  thou  dis- 
pellest  the  cares  of  the  great  and  bringest  back  those 
who  wander  from  the  paths  of  knowledge !  Coffee  is 
our  gold,  and  in  the  place  of  its  illusions  we  are  in 
the  enjoyment  of  the  best  and  noblest  society.  Every 
care  vanishes  when  the  cup-bearer  presents  the  delicious 


28o  MORAL    INFLUENCE. 


chalice  to  our  lips.  It  circulates  freely  through  our 
veins  and  will  not  rankle  there.  Grief  cannot  exist 
where  it  grows  and  sorrow  humbles  itself  before  its 
powers." 

Vive  la  cafe  / 


OHivn^E^i^  x:. 


FIFTY  years  ago  a  supply  of  150,000  tons  of  all 
kinds  of  coffee  was  considered  sufficient  to  meet 
the  entire  demand  of  Europe  and  America  com- 
bined. In  1848,  however,  these  two  continents  alone 
consumed  upwards  of  250,000  tons,  which  had  increased 
in  1868  to  375,000  tons,  and  in  1888  to  over  700,000 
tons,  or  more  than  double  that  of  fifty  years  before. 

TABLE  I. 

WORIiD'S  PRODUCTION  (ESTIMATED). 

Countries.  Weight  in  Tons. 

Liberia  and  all   other  Countries  on  the  West 

Coastiof  Africa, 19,500 

Abyssinia  and  all  other  Countries  on  the  East 

Coast  of  Africa, 20,000 

Natal  and  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 300 

Arabia,  Bourbon  and  Mauritius, 15,000 

British  India  and  Ceylon, 30,500 

Java,  Sumatra  and  Celebes, 60,000 

Bah,  Timour  and  other  Islands  in  the  Malayan 

Archipelago, 10,000 

Philippine,  Fiji  and  Samoa  Islands, 11,000 

Sandwich  and  all  other  Islands   in   the  South 

Pacific  Ocean, 1,200 

Cuba  and  Porto  Rico, 25,000 

Hayti  and  San  Domingo, 15,000 

Jamaica  and  other  Islands  in  the  West  Indies,   .  18,000 

Mexico  and  Central  America, bo,ooo 

Venezuela  and  Colombia, 50,000 

Equador  and  Bolivia, 15,000 

Brazil  and  other  Countries  in  South  America,     .  500,000 

Grand  total, &7S»S<^ 


PRODUCTION   AND    CONSUMPTION. 


Or  about  1,800,000,000  pounds  per  annum,  the  value 
of  which  averages  over  ;^27 5, 000,000  wholesale,  according 
to  its  market  price  at  time  of  sale. 


TABLE  II. 

WORLD'S  CONSUMPTION  (ESTIMATED), 

Countries.  Weight  in  Tons. 

Asia, 40,000 

Africa, 25,000 

Australia, 5,000 

Continent  of  Europe, 430,000 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 15,000 

United  States  and  Canada, 275,000 

Mexico  and  Central  America, 20,000 

West  India  Islands, 15,000 

Brazil  and  South  American  Countries,  ....  40,000 

Total, 865,000 

Which  shows  that,  in  recent  years,  the  world's  supply- 
has  not  kept  pace  with  the  growing  demand  throughout 
the  civilized  world. 

TABLE  III. 

Showing  the  average  annual  consumption  in  the  United  States, 
imported  principally  as  follows  : — 

Country.  Tons.  Per  Cent. 

Brazil, 150,000  75.00 

Venezuela, 20,000  5.00 

Mexico, 10,000  4.00 

Central  America, 5,000  2.00 

West  India  Islands, 10,000  4  00 

India  and  Ceylon, 1,000  i.oo 

Arabia  and  Africa, 10,000  5.00 

Java  and  Sumatra, ......  10,000  4.00 

Total, 216,000  100.00 


PRODUCTION    AND    CONSUMPTION.  283 


TABLE  IV. 

Showing  where  United  States  receives  supplies  of  coffee  from 
in  general  and  the  various  kinds  consumed  : — 

Country.  Pounds. 

Africa, 35,000,000 

Arabia, 10,000,000 

England, 5,000,000 

Holland, 5,000,000 

Germany, 250,000 

Belgium, 80,000 

Portugal  and  Spain, 150,000 

Brazil, 400,000,000 

Canada, 500 

Mexico, 10,000,000 

Venezuela, 35,000,000 

Colombia, 15,000,000 

Equador  and  Bolivia, 1,000,000 

West  India  Islands 5,000,000 

British  and  Dutch  Guiana, 1,500,000 

Malayan  Archipelago, 25,000,000 

British  India  and  Ceylon, 5,000,000 

Phihppine  and  Pacific  Islands, 10,000 

Sandwich  and  other  Islands, 75,000 

Azores  and  Cape  Verde  Islands, 1,500 

French   Possessions  in  Africa,   Madagascar 

and  Bourbon, 1,500 

Total  importation, 600,000,000 

Total  value $80,000,000 

Which,  according  to  the  Bureau  of  Statistics,  is  about 
9  ^oViVi6.?>  per  capita,  valued  at  ;^i.i5  per  head,  for  every 
man,  woman  and  child  in  the  United  States,  while  it  has 
been  ascertained  that  the  consumption  of  coffee  has 
declined  in  England  in  the  past  ten  years  to  less  than 
one  pound  per  capita  of  the  population  as  against  an 
increase  in  the  consumption  of  tea  from  6  to  8  pounds. 


284  PRODUCTION   AND   CONSUMPTION. 


TABLE  V. 

Showing  per  capita  consumption  of  the  principal  countries  of 
the  world  in  round  numbers  : — 

Countries  Consumption  Per  Capita 

countries.  (Pounds).  (Pounds). 

Asia, 80,000,000  

Africa, 50,000,000  i 

Australia, 10,000,000  2 

Austria, 10,000,000  2^ 

Belgium, 50,000,000  10 

Denmark, 25,000,000  6 

France, 100,000,000  lYz 

Germany, 180,000,000  5 

Greece, 2,000,000  oyi 

Holland, 70,000,000  14 

Italy, 30,000,000  I 

Switzerland, 20,000,000  5 

Russia  and  Siberia, 15,000,000 

Sweden  and  Norway,      ....  35,000,000  10 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  ,     .     .  35,000,000  i 

United  States  and  Canada,      .     .  600,000,000  6 

Mexico  and  Central  America, .     .  35,000,000  3 

West  India  Islands, 30,000,000  5 

South  American  States,  ....  100,000,000  3 


What  tea  is  to  the  United  Kingdom  coffee  is  to  the 
United  States,  the  consumption  of  the  latter  in  this 
country  increasing  from  80,000,000  pounds  in  1 86 1  to 
116,000,000  in  1 87 1,  and  to  over  400,000,000  pounds  in 
1 88 1,  the  consumption  of  coffee,  at  the  present  time  in 
this  country,  falling  just  short  of  the  enormous  figures 
of  600,000,000  pounds. 

The  use  of  coffee  has  been  extending  at  an  enormous 
rate  for  the  past  150  years,  until  at  the  present  day  it 
is  found  in  every  civilized  country  and  almost  every  un- 
civilized country  on  the  habitable  globe.     It  has  become 


PRODUCTION   AND    CONSUMPTION.  285 

one  of  the  corner-stones  of  civilization.  As  has  been 
well  said  by  one  writer,  it  smoothes  the  troubled  soul, 
heals  all  family  feuds,  fits  one  for  the  annoyances  of 
business,  and  organizes  a  truce  between  the  man  who 
drinks  it  and  all  the  troubles  and  cares  of  life.  The 
United  States  is  without  doubt  a  nation  of  coffee- 
drinkers,  the  average  annual  consumption  reaching  up- 
wards of  600,000,000  pounds,  or  nearly  ten  pounds  per 
capita  of  the  entire  population. 

Up  to  i860  there  was  a  wide  disparity  between  the 
production  and  consumption  of  coffee  throughout  the 
civilized  world,  the  former  remaining  stationary  while  the 
latter  continued  to  increase  rapidly  until  the  civil  war, 
which  caused  a  reduction  in  this  country  of  nearly  200,000 
tons  per  annum,  thus  re-establishing  the  relative  difference 
between  the  laws  of  supply  and  demand.  With  the  close 
of  the  rebellion,  the  United  States,  however,  and  a 
reduction  of  the  duty,  the  consumption  again  steadily 
increased,  exceeding  in  a  short  time  the  increase  in  the 
production,  causing  a  steady  advance  in  prices  from  1869 
to  1880,  the  extreme  advance  in  prices  in  the  latter  year 
naturally  stimulated  and  increased  production  until  stocks 
accumulated  largely  and  prices  again  declined  accord- 
ingly. During  the  period  from  1880-87,  planters  and 
dealers  suffered  greatly,  many  disastrous  failures  among 
both  classes  following  as  a  consequence.  The  consump- 
tion meanwhile  continued  to  increase  steadily,  as  did  also 
the  production,  owing  to  the  yield  of  new  plantations 
previously  opened  under  the  stimulus  of  the  high  prices 
prevailing  in  1880,  fair  relations  between  the  production 
and  consumption  being  to  the  present  maintained. 

The  history  of  tariff  legislation  on  coffee  in  the 
United  States  may  be  summed  up  in  the  following 
sequence :  The  first  duty  on  coffee  was  levied  in   1789, 


286  PRODUCTION   AND    CONSUMPTION. 

which  was  23^  cents  per  pound.  In  1790  this  was 
increased  to  4  cents,  and  again  to  5  cents  in  1794,  being 
retained  at  the  latter  figure  until  1812,  when  it  was 
increased  to  10  cents,  owing  to  the  increased  expendi- 
tures of  the  government,  due  to  the  war  with  England. 
At  the  close  of  this  war,  in  18 14,  the  duty  was  reduced 
to  5  cents  per  pound,  remaining  at  the  latter  figure  until 
1828,  when  it  was  still  further  reduced  to  2  cents;  in 
1830,  to  I  cent,  being  removed  altogether  in  1832,  and 
placed  for  the  first  time  on  the  free  list.  No  tax  was 
again  placed  on  coffee  until  the  beginning  of  the  civil 
war  in  1861,  when  a  duty  of  4  cents  per  pound  was 
levied  on  it,  which  was  shortly  after  increased  to  5  cents, 
at  which  figure  it  remained  until  1871,  when  it  was 
reduced  to  3  cents,  the  duty  being  entirely  removed 
from  coffee  in  1872,  since  which  year  it  has  remained 
uninterruptedly  on  the  free  list. 

During  the  years  from  1832  to  1861,  when  coffee  was 
entered  free  of  duty,  it  ruled  lower  in  price  and  increased 
more  in  consumption  than  it  had  at  any  previous  period, 
the  per  capita  consumption  increasing  from  three  pounds 
in  1830,  to  nearly  six  pounds  in  i860,  the  quantity 
imported  into  the  United  States  in  the  latter  year 
reaching  nearly  236,000,000  pounds,  being  valued  at 
;^2 1,500,000,  the  three  following  years  showing  an 
average  annual  importation  of  about  220,600,000  pounds, 
valued  at  ^21,000,000.  In  1855  ^^i^  ^^^  averaged  11 
cents  per  pound;  Maracaibo,  12  cents,  and  Java,  14^ 
cents ;  these  being  the  three  principal  then  in  demand 
in  the  American  market,  while  in  i860  the  range  was 
considerably  higher  and  the  consumption  correspond- 
ingly less,  Rios  averaging  13^  cents  ;  Maracaibos,  14^ 
cents;  and  Javas,  16^  cents.  These  prices  continuing 
to  advance  until  1863-4,  when  the  prices  of  coffee  ruled 


PRODUCTION   AND   CONSUMPTION. 


a«? 


exceptionally  high,  owing  to  the  war  duty  of  5  cents  per 
pound;  the  figures  averaging  in  1863  31  cents  for  Rio, 
32  cents  for  Maracaibo,  and  37  cents  for  Java,  increasing 
in  1864  to  4254  cents  for  Rio,  43  cents  for  Maracaibo, 
and  49  cents  for  Java.  From  1864  to  1880,  however, 
there  was  a  steady  decline  in  the  prices  of  coffee,  there 
being  at  the  same  time  a  correspondingly  steady  increase 
in  its  consumption.  The  prices  ruling  for  the  three  leading 
kinds  of  coffee  in  the  American  market,  from  1880  to 
1890,  is  as  follows,  per  pound: — 


Year. 
1880 
1881 
1882 
1883 
1884 
1885 
1886 
1887 
1888 
1889 
1890 


Rio. 
Cents. 


Maracaibo. 
Cents. 


16 

I2K  . 

II 
9 

'  ioi4r 

19 

.  18 

13 

loYi 
II 
iiX 

loX 
10 

.  16% 

.    20 
.  20 

Java. 
Cents. 

23>^ 

18 

16 

16^ 

16 

20 

22 
22 


In  many  of  the  years  from  1870  to  1880,  Java,  which 
is  regarded  as  the  standard  coffee,  sold  less  than  Mara- 
caibo ;  the  latter  frequently  selling  for  less  than  Rio, 
which  is  considered  the  lowest  in  the  scale  during  the 
same  period.  In  1875,  however,  the  imports  again  in- 
creased to  300,000,000  pounds,  valued  at  ;^5 1,000,000. 
Taking  the  population  in  1856  at  27,000,000  and  in  1875 
at  42,000,000,  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  increase  in 
quantity  of  imports  was  only  34  per  cent.,  2 1  per  cent, 
less  than  the  increase  of  population  for  the  same  period, 
while  the  increase  in  value  was  146  per  cent,  meantime. 
Figures  which  serve  conclusively  to  prove  that  while 


S68  PRODUCTION  AND   CONSUMPTION. 

low  prices  tend  tg  increase  consumption,  high  prices  only 
serve  to  retard  it.  About  1883  new  factors  in  the  buying 
and  selling  of  coffee  appeared,  coffee  exchanges  been 
opened  in  Havre,  Hamburg  and  New  York,  which  created 
large  transactions  in  **  options,"  some  of  them  becoming 
enormous  in  their  magnitude,  and  against  which  consider- 
able quantities  of  coffee  must  be  held,  the  operations  for 
future  deliveries  reaching  as  high  as  22,000,000  bags  in 
1887.  This  enormous  increase  in  the  transactions  of 
that  year  was  due  entirely  to  a  short  crop  report  and  to 
the  active  speculation  based  thereon.  The  continued 
increase  in  consumption  and  the  increased  demand  for 
stocks  held  against  the  trading  in  options  not  being  met 
by  a  corresponding  increase  in  the  production  of  the 
article,  added  to  the  serious  injury  to  the  crops  in  Java 
by  leaf  disease  and  in  Brazil  by  blight,  having  still 
further  disturbed  the  relations  between  the  established 
laws  of  supply  and  demand. 


.A.i*x^E>ivi>ix:. 


TABLE  I. 

Showing  tares,  style  of  package  and  average  weight  of  the 
principal  coffees  imported  into  the  United  States. 


Style 

Average 

Kind. 

of 

Weight 

Tare. 

Package. 

Pounds. 

Mocha,   .     .     . 

Bales,  .    . 

.160.. 

.    Actual. 

Javas,      .     .     . 

Mats,    .     . 

.       66  .    . 

.     I  percent. 

India,      .     .     . 

Bags,    .    . 

140  .    . 

,    2  per  cent. 

Ceylon,  .     .     . 

Bags,    .    . 

140  .    . 

.    2  per  cent. 

Ceylon,  .    .    . 

Casks, .    . 

1,000  .    . 

Actual, 

Jamaica,      .     . 

Bags,   .    .    . 

200  .    . 

2  per  cent. 

Jamaica,      .     . 

Barrels,    .     . 

200  .    . 

.     Actual. 

San  Domingo, 

Bags,    .     . 

.      150.    . 

,    2  per  cent. 

Hayti,     .     .     . 

Bags,    .     .     . 

150  ..    . 

2  per  cent. 

Mexican,     .     . 

Bales,   .     . 

.      150.    . 

,    2  per  cent. 

Guatemala,      . 

Bags,    .     . 

140  .    . 

I  per  cent. 

Nicaragua, .     . 

Bags,    .     .     . 

140  .    . 

I  per  cent. 

Honduras,  .    . 

Bags,    .    . 

.      140  .    . 

.     I  per  cent. 

Costa  Rica, 

Bags,    .    . 

140  .    . 

.     I  per  cent. 

Caracas,      .     . 

Bags,    .    . 

.      130  .    . 

.    2  per  cent 

Maracaibo, 

Bags,    .     .    , 

130  .    . 

I  per  cent. 

Laguayra,  .     . 

Bags,    .    . 

.      130  •    • 

.    I  per  cent. 

Angostura,  .     . 

Bags,    .     . 

.      130  .    . 

.    Actual. 

Colombo,    .     . 

Bags,    .     . 

230  .     . 

.     I  per  cent. 

Equador,     .     . 

Bags,    .    . 

.      130  .    . 

.     I  per  cent. 

Bolivian,     .     . 

Bags,    .    . 

.      130  .    • 

I  per  cent. 

Brazilian,    .     . 

Bags.    .     . 

.      130  .    . 

.     I  per  cent. 

All  other  coffees  in  bags  one  per  cent,  and  all  others^  in  bales 
and  barrels  actual  tare. 


■^9^  APPENDIX. 


TABLE  II. 

Showing  relative  difference  between  cost  of  raw  and  roasted 
coffees,  including  cost  of  roasting  (}i  cent  per  pound),  and  loss  by- 
shrinkage  (15  per  cent). 

Raw.  Roasted.  Raw.  Roasted. 

10 12  35  17I 21  47 

loi 12  65  18 21  76 

10^ 12  94  l8| 22  06 

lOf 13  24  1^ 22  35 


II 


....  13  53      i8f 22  64 

"i 13  82      19 22  93 


i^ 14  12      19J 23  22 

tf H  41       192^ 23  52 


12 14  71       i9f 23  82 

12J 15  00      20 24  41 

12^ 15  29         20| 24  41 

i2f 15  59      20^ 24  71 

13 15  88      2of 25  00 

13? 16  18       21 25  30 

13^ 16  48       21^ 25  59 

I3f 16  67       21^ 25  88 

14 17  06         2lf 26  19 

i4i 17  35      22 26  47 

i4j 17  67      22^ 26  76 

Uf 17  94      22^ 27  06 

15 18  24      22f 27  35 

i5i 18  53      23 27  64 

15^ 18  82      23i 27  94 

15I 19  13      23^ 28  24 

16 19  41      23! 28  53 

16J 19  71      24 28  82 

16^ 20  00  24^^  .....  29  12 

i6f 20  30      24^ 29  42 

17 20  59      24f 29  71 

17^ 20  89      25 30  00 

For  each  one-eighth  of  a  cent  Raw  add  one-fifteenth  Roasted, 


APPENDIX.  293 


TABLE  III. 

Showing  comparative  loss  in  roasting  coffee  between  Winter  and 
Summer  months  of  the  principal  coffees  : — 

Months.  Rio.  Java.  Mocha.      Maracaibo, 

Per  cent.       Per  cent.      Per  cent.       Per  cent. 

January, 14  16  15  16 

February, 14  16  15  16 

March, 14  16  15  16 

June, 13  15  14  15 

luiy. 13  15  14  15 

August, 13  15  14  15 

From  which  it  may  be  noted  that  Rio  and  Mocha  lose  on  an 
average  one  per  cent,  less  than  Java  and  Maracaibo  in  both 
seasons,  which  is  accounted  for  by  the  greater  hardness  and 
solidity  of  the  bean  of  the  former  over  the  latter,  which  are  lighter 
and  softer  in  texture,  the  average  loss  being  15  per  cent,  on  all 
coffees. 

TABLE  IV. 

Showing  comparative  weights  of  Raw  and  Roasted  coffees,  after 
sustaining  a  loss  of  from  12  to  16  per  cent. : — 
Weight  raw.  Weight  roasted. 

Net.  Per  cent.         Per  cent.        Per  cent.       Per  cent.  Per  cent. 

12  13  14  15  16 

50  lbs.      44      43|     43      42^     42 

55  •'       A^  48     47J     46f     46 

60  "       52^     52      51^     51      50^ 

65  "       57  56^  56  55i  54^ 

70  "       61^  61  60  59|  58f 

75  "       66  65i  64I  63f  63 

80  ••       70^  69^  68^  68  67 

85  "       741  74  73  72i  71^ 

90  "       79  78f  77h  7^  7Sh 

95  "       83I  82^  81^  8of  79f 

100  "       89  87  86  85  84 

105  "  92^  91^  90^  89^  88 

no  "       96f  95^  94^  93^  91^ 

115  "  102  100  99  98  96^ 

120  "  105^  104^  103  102  lOI 

125  "  no  io8f  107^  106J  105 

130     "  114^  113  112  III  iioj 

135    "  ii8f  117^  116  ii4f  113^ 

140  "  124  I2lf  I2C4  119  II7i 
145  "  I27i  126  I24I  123^  I2l| 
150  "       131J   -  129!     I28i     I26f     I25|- 


294  APPENDIX. 


TABLE  V. 

Showing  cost  of  Roasted  coffee  after  sustainingfa  loss  of; 

:— 

Cost  Raw. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent.    ] 

Per  cent. 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

lO 

III 

III 

Ilf 

Ilf 

III 

loi 

12 

I2i 

I2i 

I2| 

I2i 

II 

I2i 

I2| 

I2f 

I2l 

13 

Hi 

13 

I3i 

I3f 

I3f 

i3f 

12 

i3f 

i3f 

14 

Hi 

I4i 

I2h 

I4i 

I4f 

Hh 

I4f 

Hi 

13 

I4f 

15 

i5i 

151 

i5i 

I3i 

151 

i5i 

151 

151 

151 

14 

151 

i6i 

i6i 

i6| 

i6| 

14^ 

i6i 

i6| 

i6| 

17 

i7i 

15 

17 

I7i 

171 

I7f 

I7l 

i5i 

i7f 

171- 

18 

i8i 

18^ 

16 

i8| 

i8| 

i8f 

i8| 

19 

16^ 

i8f 

19 

I9i 

I9f 

19I 

17 

i9i 

19I 

I9f 

20 

20i 

i7l 

19I 

20^ 

2of 

20| 

20| 

18 

20| 

20f 

20f 

2li 

2I| 

18^ 

21 

2li 

2I| 

2I| 

22 

19 

2I| 

2I| 

22i 

22f 

22| 

19^ 

22i 

22f 

22f 

23 

23i 

20 

22f 

23 

23i 

23I 

23i 

20I 

23i 

23I 

23I 

24i 

24f 

21 

23f 

24 

241 

241 

25 

2ih 

24i 

241 

25 

25i 

251 

22 

25 

25i 

25f 

2Sl 

26i 

22| 

25^ 

25f 

26i 

26^ 

26f 

23 

26i 

26f 

26f 

27 

271 

23i 

26I 

27 

27f 

271 

28 

24 

27i 

27f 

271 

28i 

28| 

24i 

271 

28i 

28i 

28I 

^i 

25 

28f 

28f 

29i 

29f 

29f 

To  which  must  be  added  cost  of  roasting,  ^  cent  per  pound. 


APPENDIX.  295 


TABLE  VI. 

Showing  New  York  Coffee  Exchange  point  card,  and  giving 
decimal  value  of  5  points  to  one  cent  per  pound  on  250  bags  coffee 
(32,500  pounds),  which  is  the  smallest  transaction : — 

Points.  Difference.  Points.  Difference. 

05,       ....       $16  25  105,      ....     $341    25 

10,  ...  .  32  50  no,  ....  357  50 
15,  ...  .  48  75  iiS»  ....  373  75 
20,  ...  .   65  00     120,  ....   390  10 

25 81  25        125,   ....   406  2$ 

30.  •  •  •  •  97  50  130.  ....  432  50 

35 113  75  i35»  ....  438  75 

40,  ....  130  00  140,  ....  455  50 

45,  ....  146  25  145,  ....  471  25 

50,  ....  162  50  150,  ....  487  50 

55,  ....  178  75  150,  ....  487  50 

60,  ....  195  00  155,  ....  503  75 

65,  ....  211  25  160,  ....  520  00 

70,  ....  227  50  165,  ....  536  25 

7S,     ....  243  75  170,  ....  552  50 

80,  ....  260  00  175,  ....  568  75 

85,  ....  276  25  180,  ....  585  00 

90,  ....  292  50  185,  ....  601  25 

95,  ....  308  75  190,  ...  .  617  50 

100  (one  cent),  325  00  195,  ....  635  75 

200  (two  cents),  650  50 

No.  7  (low  ordinary)  is  adopted  as  the  "  standard  grade,"  and 
is  taken  as  a  basis  for  all  operations,  but  a  grade  comparing  with 
any  of  the  ten  numbers  may  be  substituted  at  their  approximate 
values  when  delivered  is  insisted  on  and  No.  7  cannot  be  had. 
The  brokerage  for  buying  and  selling  is  4  cents  per  bag,  and  the 
original  margin  $1.00  per  bag,  the  smallest  transaction  allowed 
being  250  bags  and  the  market  fluctuation  y^  cents  per  pound. 


296 


APPENDIX. 


TABLE  VII. 
Showing  method  for  converting  Rio  and  Santos  quotations  into 
United  States  currency,  including  freight  charges  at  40  cents  and 
5  per  cent,  per  bag  marine  insurance.  One  month's  charges  in 
New  York,  at  2  per  cent,  discount,  I4.80,  equaling  the  pound 
sterling  at  60  days  sight. 


Market  Price  in 
Rio  per 
10  Kilos. 

.CXX)  . 

.200  . 

.400  . 

.600  . 

.800  . 

.000  . 

.200  . 

.400  . 

.600  . 

.800  . 

.000  . 


Rio  Rates  of  Exchange  on  London  (equivalent  in  cents  per 
pound). 
21^  2i%d  vzd 

I2/A 

I3tJ^ 
16^ 


I2^«,,      .      .      . 

I2^''tT 

I2t«^%      .      .      . 

I2t3^1j 

13^      .      .      . 

^3TTny 

I3A^TT      .       . 

*4ttrf 

14^      .      . 

I4^«TJ 

14^      .      . 

iSt^'tt    .     . 

'Stoit 

16^^^      .       . 

.     i5t^A 

16^      .      . 

i6t^t^ 

16^      .      . 

i6t^ 

17^      .      . 

.     i7tV{t 

Fractional  equivalents  to  be  added  if  necessary,  each  )id.  in 
exchange  being  equivalent  to  about  i  per  cent.  Bases  for  freight 
differences  to  be  added  or  deducted  at  rate  of  5  cents  and  5  per 
cent,  per  bag — .04  cents  per  pound,  to  which  must  be  also  added 
commission  for  buying  in  Rio  or  Santos,  but  if  the  coffee  should 
be  wanted  for  sale  on  the  Exchange  no  addition  need  be  made. 


TABLE  VIII. 
For  converting  London  quotations  into  U.  S.  currency,  includ- 
ing cost,  insurance,  freight,  one  month's  charges  in  New  York  and 
2  per  cent,  discount. 


Market  Price  in  London 

London  Rates  of  Exchange  at  60  days. 

equivalent  in  cent* 

per  112  pounds. 

per  pound. 

Shillings.                          ^4  80 

I485 

^90 

50  ....     $11  43     . 

%\i  54    .    . 

$11    65 

51    . 

II    63      . 

II  78    .    . 

II    89 

52   . 

II    89      . 

12  00   .    . 

12    12 

53  . 

12    II      . 

12  23    .    . 

12  35 

54. 

12    34      . 

12  46    .    . 

12    58 

55  • 

12  53    . 

12  69   .    . 

12  81 

56  . 

12  73    . 

12  91    .    . 

13  04 

57  . 

13  02    . 

13  14   .    . 

13   27 

58. 

13  23    . 

13  38    .    . 

13    51 

59  • 

13  48    . 

1360    .    . 

13  75 

APPENDIX.  297 


The  best  and  most  rapid  method  of  reducing  the  cost  of  coffee 
in  Brazil  to  United  States  currency  is,  however,  to  multiply  the 
price  by  the  rate  of  exchange  ruling  at  the  time  of  purchase.  The 
result  will  be  in  English  pence,  which  is  converted  into  Amer- 
ican gold  in  the  regular  way  at  the  existing  rate  of  London  ex- 
change. Another  method  by  which  a  result  accurate  enough  for 
all  practical  purposes  may  be  obtained  is  to  multiply  the  price  by 
the  rate  of  exchange,  and  then  deducting  one-fourth  of  the  amount 
so  obtained,  first  getting  the  free-on-board  charges  in  Rio  or 
Santos,  to  which  must  be  added  the  cost  of  freight  and  other 
charges. 

TABLE  IX. 

Showing  the  average  value  for  each  year  from  1846  to  1878, 
inclusive,  for  fair  to  prime  Rio  coffee,  cargo  price  in  gold,  "  in 
bond,"  in  New  York : — 


Year. 

Value. 

Year. 

Value. 

;Year. 

Value. 

Year. 

Value. 

1846  . 

7-44 

1857  . 

II. 15 

1868  . 

10.5 

1879  • 

14.87 

1847  . 

7.34 

1858  . 

11.08 

1869. 

11.00 

1880  . 

15.12 

1848  . 

6.63 

1859  . 

11.66 

1870  . 

11.33 

1881  . 

12.23 

1849  . 

7.37 

i860  • 

1374 

187I  . 

12.91 

1882  . 

9-77 

1850  . 

10.91 

1861 

12.31 

1872  . 

if  If 

1883  . 

10.36 

1851  . 

944 

1862  . 

15.22 

1873  . 

19.99 

1884  . 

10.92 

J852  . 

8.85 

1863 

16.39 

1874  . 

21.08 

1885  . 

9.01 

1853  . 

9.76 

1864  . 

16.22 

1875  • 

18.87 

1886  . 

10.33 

1854  . 

1855  . 

1856  . 

10.48 
10.47 

1865  . 

1866  . 

12.23 

1876  . 

1877  . 

1878  . 

18.21 

18.45 
15.58 

!  !  \ 

\ 

11.04 

1867  . 

•  •  ♦ 

,  , 

Coffee  was  admitted  free  up  to  the  first  of  August,  1861,  when 
an  import  duty  of  four  cents  a  pound  was  levied.  In  January, 
1862,  the  duty  was  raised  to  five  cents  a  pound;  and  this  con- 
tinued to  1870,  when  the  duty  was  reduced  to  three  cents  a  pound. 
On  the  first  of  July,  1872,  the  impost  was  removed,  and  coffee  was 
admitted  to  duty  free  once  more.  In  the  above  table,  it  will  be 
observed  that  the  highest  point  was  in  1874,  after  the  impost  had 
been  removed,  when  it  was  21  cents.  This  was  about  the  same 
as  in  1863  and  '64,  with  the  duty  of  5  cents  added ;  but  this,  it 
will  be  remembered,  is  an  average  for  the  years  alluded  to  for 
fair  to  prime,  but  during  the  year  there  was  often  fluctuations,  and 
prime,  as  circumstances  demanded,  brought  a  very  high  price,  as 
in  some  instances  it  touched  at  or  near  25  cents,  when  of  course  all 
other  coffees  were  proportionally  large. 


298 


APPENDIX. 


TABLE  X. 

Showing  fluctuations  in  the  coffee  market  from  1850  to  1867, 
inclusive. 


Year. 

Pounds. 

Year. 

Pounds. 

1850 

.  .   131,640,000 

1868 

.  ,  219,212,400 

1851 

.  .   177,760,000 

1869 

.  .  238,653,800 

1852 

.  .  291,344,000 

1870 

.  .  275.895,400 

1853 

.  .   172,898,000 

1871 

,  .  310,956,800 

1854 

.  .   175,780,000 

1872 

.  .  266,866.600 

1855 

.  ,   206,250,000 

1873 

,  .  264,666,600 

1856 

.  .  214,104,000 

1874   . 

.  272,608,600 

1857 

.  .   168,916,000 

1875 

.  301,727,800 

1858 

.  .  246,510,000 

1876 

.  295,039,800 

1859 

.  .  219,010,000 

1877   . 

.  297,523.600 

i860 

.  .   173,844,000 

1878 

.  213,830,000 

1861 

.  .   194,656,000 

1879 

•  396.391.600 

1862 

.  .   87,406,000 

1880 

.  390,188,500 

1863 

.  .   78,562,000 

1881 

.  411,633,200 

1864 

.  .   107,052,900 

1882   , 

.  467,504,400 

1865 

.   .   125,708,000 

1883   . 

.  449,002.400 

1866 

.  .   157,146,000 

1884   . 

.  490,468.000 

1867 

.  .   199,760,000 

1885   . 

.  530,127,400 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  consumption  increased  to  1858,  and 
gradually  declined  to  1863,  when  it  touched  the  lowest  point. 
Since  that  time  it  has  increased  nearly  seven-fold,  but  while 
the  quantity  imported  or  consumed  has  increased  beyond  our 
power  to  fully  realize  the  amount  in  figures,  it  is  curious  to  con- 
sider the  varied  values  of  coffee  under  the  many  peculiarities  of 
drcumstances  for  the  past  thirty-six  year?. 


APPENDIX. 


299 


TABLE  XL 

SHOWING  HOW  COFFEE  IS  IMPORTED. 

Pro  Forma  Invoice  of  1,000  Bags  of  Coffee,  of  60  Kilos,  each. 
Shipped  from  Rio  de  Janeiro  or  Santos  to  the  United  States, 

1,000  bags  coffee  of  60  kilos,  each 
=net  kilos.  60,000,  @  6^350 
per  10  kilos., *Rs.  38:100)^000 

1,000  empty  bags  @  700  reis,  .    .  7oo$ooo 

—  Rs.  38:800^000 

Export  duty  on  kilos.  60,000  @  502 

rs.  per  kilo.=Rs.  30,i20$ooo 

@  13  per  cent.,    •    .    .    .    .    Reis  3:9x5^600 

Harbor-master  (Capatazias)    fees, 

60  rs.  per  bag, 60^000 

Brokerage,  50  rs.  per  bag,  .    .    ,  50^000 

Shipping  expenses  (at  220  rs.=Rs. 
220,000),  sample,  tins  and  box 
(Rs.  25$ooo),  freight  on  same 
(Rs.  2^000),  consul's  certifi- 
cate (included  in  sample,  tins, 
etc.),  cablegram  (Rs.  loo^ooo), 
stamps,  petties,  etc.  (included 
in  sample,  tins  and  box),  .    .  347$ooo 

4:372$6oo 


43:i72$6oo 
Commission  for  buying,  2  per  cent., 863^450 

44:036^050 
Bill  brokerage  and  stamps,  f^  of  i  per  cent.,.    .    .  i65$76o 

Reis  44:201  $8 10 

*  ifioo  reis— iX  mil-ries— 54^  cents,  U.  S. 


300  APPENDIX. 


TABLE  XII. 

SHOWING  CONVERSION  OF  BRAZILIAN  INTO  AMERICAN 
CURRENCY. 

Amount  of  pro  forma  invoice,  ,  .  .  Reis  44:2oi|8io 
At  21;^  d.  exchange  at  Rio,  .  .  .  ;^3.959  15 
$4.84>^—>^  per  ^  sterling, $19,16100 

Charges  accruing  in  the  United  States  :— 

Freight  per  steamer  to  New  York,  40c.  per 
bag  and  5  per  cent,  primage, $420  00 

Marine  insurance,  i  per  cent,  less  30  per 
cent. — ^  net,  on  $21,672  or  invoice  and  £ 
value  @  $5.50, 151  70 

Banker's  commission  for  credit=^  of  i  per 
cent,  on  $19,161, I43  72 

Bill  stamps  in  London  (nil). 

Labor  at  vessel,  4c.  per  bag ;  storage,  one 
month,  @  4c. ;  weighing,  3Xc. ;  fire  in- 
surance, i^c.  per  bag;  delivery  (lighter- 
age), 4c.  per  bag=i6>^c.  per  bag,    .    ...     16500 

Petty  charges,  /.  e.,  sampling,  sewing,  custom 
fees,  etc.,  on  bags,  per  bag,  3>^c. ;  approx- 
imate  for  skimming   of  quality, ^bags 

@    ;  furnishing  new  bags,     .....      35  00 

Cables  at  New  York,     ...••••.        5  00 

920  42 

Cost  of  1,000  in  store, $20,081  42 


wo  1[^^ 


